APES MIDTERM

Tragedy of the Commons

situation in which people acting individually and in their own interest use up commonly available but limited resources, creating disaster for the entire community
overusing public/shared resources since they don't experience the negative consequences of doing so (acting in self interest)

Clean Water Act

(CWA, 1972) set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable

Clean Air act

(CAA, 1970) set emission standards for cars and limits for release of air pollutants
6 Air pollutants
- SO2
- NOx
- CO
- Pb
- PM
- O3

air pollutants

specific chemicals, compounds, or particles harmful to air

air pollution

the introduction of harmful pollutants into atmosphere

SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide)

a pollutant from coal combustion
a respiratory irritant
causes acid rain

Reducing SOx and NOx

Reducing ______ and _____ (air pollutants)
- crushed limestone
- fluidized bed combustion

Crushed limestone

used to reduce SO2 from coal power plants
calcium carbonate + SO2 = calcium sulfate (rather than SO2)

Fluidized bed combustion

a clean-coal technology in which crushed coal is mixed with limestone to neutralize the acidic sulfur compounds produced during combustion
fluidized jets of air are pumped into the combustion "bed"
efficient combustion
brings SO2 into more contact with limestone
less NOx

NOx (Nitrogen Oxides)

pollutant occurs from fossil fuel combustion (gas)
causes smog and acid rain by creating O3

health impact:
- causes ozone formation
- respiratory irritant
- can form nitric acid and acid rain when combined with water and O2

CO (Carbon monoxide)

pollutant from incomplete combustion of fuel source (either from a lack of O2 or lack of temperature)
displaces O2 in the blood -- lethal

impacts:
causes suffocation
binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells
lethal in high concentration
oderless, colorless, and hard to detect

Pb (Lead)

a pollutant from metal plants and waste incineration
in 1978 the EPA prohibited its use in paint

impacts:
nuerotoxicant
damages nervous system

O3 (ozone)

a pollutant that causes photochemical oxidation and photochemical smog
respiratory irritant
causes plant damage

PM (particulate matter)

a pollutant from suspended particles -- common indoors
occurs from combustion, fire, construction, smoke

impacts:
respiratory irritant
causes smog

Electrostatic Precipitator

A device used for removing particulates from smokestack emissions. The charged particles are attracted to an oppositely charged metal plate, where they are precipitated out of the air.

Reduces PM

baghouse filter

Dirty air enters, combustion exhaust stream moes through and dust particles are trapped in a series of filter bags, cleaner and filtered air moves out of unit, shaker mechanism activated periodically to dislodge trapped particles which can then be collected from below unit.

reduces PM

VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds)

chemical pollutants used in home
products that easily vaporize
ex. adhesives, formaldehydes
carcinogens
ex. plastics and fabrics

impacts:
irritate the eyes and lungs

asbestos

A long, thin, fibrous silicate mineral with insulating properties (no longer used but may be present in older architecture), which can cause cancer when inhaled.
can enter the air and the respiratory track

mesothelioma

lung cancer

Radon Gas

Radioactive gas from uranium decay
can leak into houses through cracks in the ground

impacts:
2nd leading cause of cancer

Primary air pollutant

a pollutant emitted directly from the source
NOx, SOx, CO2, VOCs, CO, hydrocarbons

secondary air pollutant

primary pollutants transformed by sun, 02, H2O
O3
H2SO4, SO42-, HNO3, NO3-

indoor air pollutants in developing nations

the source of the air pollution is from subsistence fuels that are combusted indoors with little ventilation
(these cause NOx, PM, and CO -- toxic)
causes millions of deaths

indoor air pollutants in developed nations

the source of the air pollution is from industrial chemicals (chemicals in products (adhesives, cleaning supplies, lead paints)

Vapor recovery nozzle

an air pollution control device on a gasoline pump that prevents fumes from escaping into the atmosphere when fueling a motor vehicle
VOCS are captured and held in a storage tank under the gas station
Reduces benzene

catalytic converter

a platinum, coated device that oxidizes most of the VOCs and some of the CO that would otherwise be emitted in exhaust, converting them to CO2 rather than toxic pollutants

Dry Scrubbers

Large column/tube/pipe filled with chemicals that absorb or neutralize oxides (NOx, SOx, VOCs) from exhaust streams (emissions)

Wet Scrubbers

fine mists of water vapor trap air particulates and the SO2 passing through a limestone mixture is converted to calcium sulfite sludge that is disposed of in landfills

Ecological footprint

measures of how much a group/person consumes expressed in an area of land

Maximum Sustainable Yeild

the maximum amount of renewable resource that can be used without reducing or depleting the resource for the future
--> roughly half of the carrying capacity is the max sustainable yield (max yield while regenerating the population)

Environmental indicators of sustainability

Biodiversity — greater diversity is healthier
Food Production — indicates soil, water, climate health - less agricultural yield is an indicator of less health
global temperature —
CO2 levels —
Population — increased population leads to less resources

Renewable Resource

a resource that is replenished naturally at/near the rate it is consumed and reused

Nonrenewable resources

a resource that cannot be replaced and exist in fixed amounts

Depletable renewable resources

renewable resources that can run out if overused

nondepletable renewable resources

renewable resources that do not run out

nuclear power

energy from uranium or radioactive fuels

subsistence fuels

Biomass fuel sources that are easily accessible (can be cheaply found and gathered by hand); often used in developing countries as a home heating or cooking fuel

fossil fuels

fossilized remains of ancient biomass and takes millions of years to form (coal, natural gas, oil)

coal formation

Pressure from overlying rock & sediment layers compacts peat into coal over time
the longer a coal deposit is pressurized, the more energy dense

Top Coal Producers

Top _______ Producers
1. US
2. Russia
3. China
4. Australia

types of coal

lignite (least energy dense), bituminous, anthracite (most energy dense)

environmental consequences of coal

consequence of ___________:
mining this fossil fuel causes habitat destruction, releases the most CO2 and greenhouse gasses of the fossil fuels, releases many air pollutants (soot, toxic ash from combustion contains lead/mercury/arsenic, sulfur, NOx), and ash ponds can leak

natural gas

pressure on the decaying remains of plants and animals (marine life) underneath layers of rock turns material into gas and oil
the cleanest fossil fuel (less CO2 and pollutants released)
methane is trapped in the oil deposits

Top natural gas Producers

Top ________ Producers
1. Russia
2. Iran
3. Qatar
4. US
5. Saudi Arabia

50-60 years of reserves left

hydraulic fracturing (fracking)

in order to extract natural gas, a vertical well is drilled, and water is injected into the well. Pressure from water fractures rock layers containing gas and creates fissures

environmental consequences of fracking

consequences of ____________:
well leaking releases salt and acidic fracking fluids, water pollution and depletion, can cause seismic activity such as earthquakes

crude oil (petroleum)

fossilized remains of organic matter are extracted through drilling in the rock layers

Top oil producers

Top _________ producers
1. Venezuela
2. Saudi Arabia
3. Iran
4. Canada
5. Iraq

50 years of reserves left

petroleum uses

gasoline, petroleum gas, jet fuel, diesel fuel, motor oil, bitumen (asphalt), naphtha (plastic)

environmental consequences of crude oil

consequences of ___________:
always possibility of oil spills, toxic chemicals, habitat loss

tar sands

used to extract crude oil
mix of sands, clay, water, and bitumen
bitumen needs to be heated in order to flow through pipes

tailing ponds

where tar sand waste water is stored

environmental consequences of tar sands

consequences of ___________:
equipment and land cause habitat destruction, biodiversity loss, group and surface water depletion through extraction processes, tailing ponds cause water contamination, CO2 release

fractional distillation of crude oil

the separation of crude oil into individual hydrocarbons by boiling point (low boiling point gathers at the top, and high boiling point gathers at the bottom of the column where it is separated)

generating electricity

always:
heat —> water steam —> turns turbine —> powers generator —> produces electricity

cogeneration

using waste heat (heat lost in energy production) to make electricity

fossil fuel combustion reaction

a step in the carbon cycle where fossil fuels react with O2 to form energy

reaction where fossil fuels react with oxygen to produce H2O and CO2

FF + O2 --> H20 + CO2

Ex. Methane, gasoline, and butane all react with O2 in this way

Small scale energy conservation methods

lowering the thermostat, planting native vegetation, energy efficient appliances, more insulation

large scale energy conservation methods

improving fuel economy standard, subsidizing electric vehicles, public transport

CAFE standards

fuel efficiency standards (stands for Corporate Average Fuel Economy)
Average MPG that that vehicles use
Less gasoline/diesel to travel the same distance

reduces energy use and air pollution

Pollution credits

Credits that can be earned and then sold by companies that emit pollutants below established standards.

Deciduous shade trees

trees used in landscaping to conserve energy by blocking the sun in the summer and letting the suns heat in in the winter

Green roof

roof covered in vegetation that helps combat heat-island effect
Decreases runoff, increases air quality, absorbs the sun's heat, and cools the area

Peak electricity demand

the time of the year/day where electricity demand is the highest

Rolling Blackouts

A series of intentional electrical blackouts affecting small areas in succession as a means of conserving electricity when supply is low.
Occurs when the demand of electricity exceeds the supply

Variable Price model

- Users pay a higher rate for energy during peak demand hours or events, to discourage energy use
- Users pay a lower rate/kWh when using a lower amount of energy (incentivizes lower overall use)

Smart Grid

an efficient, self-regulating electricity distribution network that accepts any source of electricity and distributes it automatically to end users
Different integrated power producers
2 way electricity flow

Water conservation methods

planting native vegetation (less water use), low flow water heads/appliances, rain barrels

Atmospheric gases

nitrogen makes up 78%, 21% oxygen, and remaining 1% is carbon dioxide, water vapor and other gases (ex. argon)

Layers of the atmosphere

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere

Troposphere

The lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere
- weather changes
- dense
Gets colder farther from earth's warmth

Stratosphere

The second-lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere
- dense ozone layer (tropospheric ozone on the other hand is BAD)
- absorbs UV-B rays and UV-C rays (cancerous rays)
Gets warmer by UV rays

Mesosphere

3rd layer of the atmosphere
Gets colder as density decreases

Thermosphere

The 4th layer of Earth's atmosphere.
- absorbs harmful x-rays
- northern lights are caused by charged gas molecules
Gets warmer due to solar radiation

Exosphere

The outer layer of the atmosphere merging with space

Atmospheric Temperature Gradient

Photochemical Smog

An atmospheric condition formed through a combination of weather conditions and pollution, especially from motor vehicle emissions. (increases with increased temperature, sunlight, VOC emissions, traffic, urban areas)

NO2 is broken down by the sun and combines
Ozone forms and the reaction can't be reversed with the presence of VOCs

Photochemical smog impacts

__________________ impacts
- blocks sunlight
- less photosynthesis, less plant growth
- respiratory irritant
- increased healthcare costs
- less productivity
- less agricultural yield

can be reduced with less vehicle use and less NOx

Thermal Inversion

A situation in which a relatively warm layer of air at mid-altitude covers a layer of cold, dense air below (caused naturally - more common in basins and cities surrounded by mountains).

Impacts:
- air pollutants can't be carried away and are trapped at earth's surface
- respiratory irritation
- decreased revenue
- less photosynthesis

Urban Heat Island Effect

The idea that urban areas are hotter than suburban. The heat that cities generate as a result of having many buildings and few trees or other vegetation
Does not have as much evapotranspiration

Evapotranspiration

The combined amount of H2O evaporation and transpiration -- carries heat from surface into atmosphere
A cooling process

Natural sources of air pollutants

lightning strikes (NOx), forest fires (PM, CO, NOx), plants (VOCs), volcanoes (SO2, PM, CO, NOx)

natural sources of CO2

respiration, decomposition, and volcanic eruptions

natural sources of PM

Sea salt, pollen, ash from forest fires and volcanoes dust (windborne soil)

PM10

chemical symbol for particular matter smaller than 10 micrometers
dust, pollen, ash, mold
to small to be filtered out when breathing through the nose
causes inflammation

PM2.5

chemical symbol for particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers
travel deep into the lungs
so small
lung cancer and chronic bronchitus

haze

atmospheric moisture or dust or smoke that causes reduced visibility

aerobic decomposition

organic material is broken down and recycled in the presence of air
releases CO2

Anaerobic decomposition

decomposition that occurs without using, or in the absence of, oxygen
produces methane

Acid Deposition

Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides, emitted by burning fossil fuels, enter the atmosphere-where they combine with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid-and return to Earth's surface

can be limited through less NOx and SOx emissions

impacts:
- soil and water acidity
- lowers pH
- Al toxicity

Acid Rain formation

soil and water acidification

H+ ions displace or leech other pos. charged nutrients (Ca2+, K+) from soil. H+ ions also make toxic metals like aluminum and mercury more soluble in soil and water
(slow growth or kill plants and animals)

Acid Rain mitigation

Mitigating ___________
areas with low pH can be neutralized by adding a buffer such as limestone, lime, or calcium carbonate
burning less coal/fossil fuel

Aluminum toxicity

due to acid rain or low pH that causes rapid inhibition of root growth and disruption of root morphology

Range of Tolerance

the limits to the abiotic conditions that a species can tolerate
apply to all organisms

Indicator species

Species that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded or impacted by environmental change.

Overfishing

capturing fish faster than they can reproduce

impacts:
reduced coral health

Bottom trawling

a fishing technique in which the ocean floor is literally scraped by heavy nets that smash everything in their path.
impacts:
- breaking coral
- sediment pick up

Urban Runoff

Surface runoff of rainwater created by urbanization. Hard, non-permeable surfaces, such as concrete and asphalt, replace soil, preventing water from entering aquifers. Rainwater instead flows over the hard surfaces, gathering pollutants and chemicals until it eventually rejoins a water source.

Sediment Pollution

Excessive amounts of soil particles or solid matter that enter the water.
A water pollutant
impacts:
- hurts producers due to limited sunlight and clouding