AP Psych: Developmental Psychology

Chromosomes

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information.

Nucleotides in DNA

Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine

human genome

An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

artificial selection

Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits.

Mutations

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

Nature vs. Nurture

Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?

identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

Bouchard's twin studies

Study of identical twins who were raised apart to see if genetics or environment had more control on personalities

adoption studies

Research studies that assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

gene-environment interaction

situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed

early environment

Consider critical/sensitive periods of development

Early (prenatal) environment

the environment inside of the uterus where the unborn infant is developing.

peer influence

the social influence a peer group exerts on its members, as each member attempts to conform to the expectations of the group

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

gender norms

behaviors or traits that society attributes to a particular sex

Memes

self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Roles

patterns of behavior that are representative of a person's social status

gender typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

gender schema theory

The theory that gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity.

Zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

Teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Jean Piaget

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

what occurs when new information or experiences cause you to modify your existing schemas

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

Egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

Autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

Lev Vygotsky

child development; investigated how culture & interpersonal communication guide development; zone of proximal development; play research

Scaffolding

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance

zone of proximal development

In Vygotsky's theory, the range between children's present level of knowledge and their potential knowledge state if they recieve proper guidance and instruction

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Harlow's Monkeys

monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother than the one with the food

Mary Ainsworth

developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment

responsive parenting

factor that contributes most positively to the development of secure attachment between human infants and their mothers

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

Imprinting (Lorenz)

form of learning in which a very young animal fixes its attention on the first object with which it has visual, auditory, or tactile experience and thereafter follows that object

Eric Erikson

established a theory of psychosocial development that identifies eight stages that span a person's lifetime. Each stage involves a specific conflict that a person must resolve in order to move on to the next stage.

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

self-concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

parenting styles

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

menarche

the first menstrual period

Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

life expectancy

A figure indicating how long, on average, a person may be expected to live

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

neurocognitive disorders

acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

death

end of life

Continuity

we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

Stages

steps in a process

Stability vs. Change

the debate about which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change

sex

the biological distinction between females and males

gender identity

the individual's sense of being male or female

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Gender roles

sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female

gender socialization

the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family