English Language - Unit 3 & 4

Phonology - Assimilation

a connected speech process whereby a speaker makes a sound segment sound similar to another sound next to it in the same word

eg.

Phonology - Vowel reduction

when vowels are reduced. makes the vowel sound short, making some speech unclear and relaxed

eg.

standard articulation 'good day' → vowel reduction 'guday'

standard articulation 'he is' → vowel reduction 'he's'

Phonology - Elision

Dropping a sound from a word. usually taking off unstressed vowels, consonants or syllables. often happens when speaking quickly

eg.

standard articulation 'interesting' → elision 'intresting'

standard articulation 'scenery' → elision 'scenry'

Phonology - Insertion

when speakers adds a sound where there usually isn't one. usually when words end with a vowel, and next word begins with a vowel. makes it easier to pronounce the words. also happens in a single word that contains to consonant sounds next to each other

eg.

standard articulation 'Anna ate a pancake' → Insertion 'Anna rate a pancake'

standard articulation 'going' → 'gowing'

Phonology - Hypocoristic use of suffixes (Hypocorisms)

often used to form affectionate or informal diminutive forms of words

eg. common in australia

ie

'Barbie' for barbeque, 'Aussie' for Australian, 'Mozzie' for mosquito

y

'Footy' for football

o

'Arvo' for afternoon, 'Avo' for avocado

Paralinguistic features - Non-verbal communication

Facial expression - communicates mood, attitude, opinion or feeling through movement of facial muscles. subconcious facial movements that reveal how we feel or think (lip pout, tense jaw, etc)

Gaze - eyes can be shown to reveal deception, attractiveness, power, social status, submission/dominance. people gaze at things they like for longer intervals (people or object). can communicate feelings of defeat, guilt, telling a lie. gaze can also be cultural, eg. cannot make direct eye contact with an elder

Gesture - body movement and posture communicate messages. mean different things in different cultures, 'okay' gesture in western culture, means worthless in other cultures. give specific meaning, illustrate point of being made by speaker to reguate conversation (indicating someones turn to speak)

Paralinguistic features - Vocal effects

Laughter - transcription symbol @, show length of laughter by adding more. response to excitement, humour or embarrassment

Cough - transcription symbol (COUGH). used to show anxiety, telling a lie, covering up a laugh that's inappropriate or someone is unwell

Whisper - breathy manner of speaking, (little vibration of larynx). typically used to whisper into someone's ear. stops people nearby from hearing, creates bond between those who shared the secret

Paralinguistic features - Creakiness and Breathiness

Breath - transcription , take deep breath to show suprise or relief

Breathiness - transcription [..], if vocal folds come together completely during phonation, excess air will be allowed to escape, makes breathy sound. T. Breathiness can be individual quality of how someones speaks or a feature of parituclar speech sounds

Creakiness - transciption ~, placed under sound that is creaky, vocal folds vibrate very slowly, makes speech very low in pitch. often occurs at the end of utterance as the pitch falls

Prosodic features - Stress

transcript __ underlining word, we stress sylables by varying pitch, length of the sound in a syllable and/or volume, stress content words and function words are weakened. speakers decide which words are stressed, we are able to identify context and meaing based of stress of words in a conversation

Prosodic features - Pitch

high or low sound of voice is

transcript up: /, down \, created by vocal chords in the larynx, rase the pitch vocal cords tighten, to lower pitch vocal chords loosen

high pitch - emphasizes words, indicates new action or intro to a topic, makes speaker hearable, person interjecting or competing

falling pitch - speaker coming to a close, lets others have turn speaking

in western culture:

low pitch - seen as dominant or assertive

high pitch - seen as submissive or lacking confidence

Prosodic features - Pitch Variability (Dynamics)

rate of change in someone's pitch when they are speaking, often shown when showing strong emotions

Prosodic features - Intonation

final falling intonation ., continuing intonation ,, final rising intonation ?

The rising and falling melody of words that moves with the stressed syllables of words.

used as a spoken 'grammar' marker - understand when a question is being asked

high fall intonation shows - politeness, concern, signals more information to come

low fall intonation - closing on interaction

Prosodic features - High rising tune (HRT) or uptalk

when speaker uses rising intonation similar to when asking a question (interrogative), but a statement is being made (declarative)

collaborative because still invites question/answer style discussion

shows a thought is incomplete and there is more info for the speaker

can sometimes be viewed as signaling uncertainty or lack of confidence

Prosodic feature - Tempo

Speed of speech

fast , slow

rapid - excitement, anger, anxiety

slow - calm, tired, careful word choice

Prosodic feature - Volume

Loudness and Quietness of speech, how much you project your voice

loud ,

signals emotions to listener - surprise, shock anger, be understood, initiate speaking/holding speaking

Spoken Discourse - Openings and Closings

utterances that we make to open or close a converstation

eg. of openings

"How are you?"

"How's it going"?"

"Long time, no see"

eg. of closing

"Take it easy"/"Take care"

"Bye"

"See ya"

Spoken discourse - Interrogative tags

phrases we tag on to the end of a declarative

eg.

The weather is nice outside today, isn’t it?

She wasn’t in the parade, was she?

He hasn’t gone to the store yet, has he?

sign of this is what i think i know, but then ‘is that right'?’

Spoken discourse - Discourse particles

particles or conjunctions that help the flow of discourse (conversation), include lexemes or utterances such as um, er, well, like, you know

set expectation of what might com up in the conversation. has interpersonal function

often soften the lead saying something that might be uncomfortable if there is disagreement, eg. “well that’s not exactly what I said”

Give an order of sequence of events or information “cos, then i said”

Spoken discourse - Non-fluency features

spontaneous informal discourse features that interrupt the flow of speaking and show lack of planning in the conversation

eg.

pause fillers (voiced hesitations), um, ah - uncertain what to say next

pause - not fluent not intended pause

false start - speaker changes what they’re saying “what are you.. where are you”

repairs “i am ba…bored” - speaker corrects mistake like mispronouncing a word

repetition - not fluent as opposed to deliberate and emphatic repition

Spoken discourse - Overlapping speech

when a conversation has a natural, spontaneous chaos to it. different cultures accept overlapping or silence at different times. need to have knowledge of the realtionship and culture of speakers to understand the interruptions. must see how the speaker feels or responds to overlapping through the transcript

signals:

support or reinforcement for the speaker

change/shift in topic

contradiction of the speaker

Spoken discourse - Minimal responses (back channeling)

trying to minimize interruptions when listening to the speaker. but will also show support

seen through paralinguistic features as well as cooperative noises

nods, smile, laughter

noises like 'hmm', 'ooh', 'yeah' etc

Spoken discourse - Adjacency pairs

sequence of utterances between two people that belong together.

immediate direct response

question - answer, eg. 'How much does the laptop cost?" - "It's $500"

compliment - thanks eg. "that's a lovely watch you're wearing" - "thanks it was a birthday present"

accusation - admission or denial eg. "Did you take my phone charger" - "yeah i borrowed it yesterday and forgot to give it back" (admission) "No, i didn't, why do you always think it's me"" (denial)

request - acceptance or refusal eg. "Can you open the window please? it's really hot in here" - "yeah, sure" (acceptance) "no, i don't wane the mosquitoes to get into the room" (refusal)

Strategies spoken discourse - Topic Management

Topic Shift - introduce a change in topic of conversation

discourse particles "so, I was thinking..."

imperative (sentence types) "tell me about your new car"

declarative (sentence types) "I need to tell you about..."

Maintain Topic - maintains and continues same topic or semantic field

backchannelling used to show interest "mm", "really?'"

interrogative (sentence types) "Can you tell me more about that?"

coordinating conjunctions "And..","Also.." to add more info

Topic Loop - help the flow between starting, changing and ending topics

discourse particles "You know, when you said..."

interrogative (sentence types) "What did you mean earlier when you said.."

Strategies spoken discourse - Turn Taking

swapping who is the speaker and listener during conversations

Taking the floor - take your turn in conversation

overlapping speech [ ] to take the floor

Forte (loud voice) LL to take the floor

Interjection "No way! I remember the time when..."

Holding the floor - show that it is not their turn to speak yet

using run on sentences by continuously adding conjunctions such as 'and', 'but' 'so'

Non fluency features such as pauses, pause fillers like 'umm', 'err' to show not finished

opening expressions 'Hey, listen to this..." and "did you hear about...?" indicating you will be speaking for a while

"there are three points to make" show there is a list of things you want to speak about

Passing the floor - indicates you finished speaking and allows others to start

falling intonation to show completion of a sentence and/or slowing speech

falling pitch it is someone else's turn

questioning intonation

final intonation

interrogative (sentence types) "What do you think?"

Strategies spoken discourse - Repair sequences

people notice errors when speaking and repair them to ensure clear communication. maintain effective communication - can clarify the message

clarification or confirmation

S:"I saw him at, um, that, you know, the cafe. Do you know what I mean?"

L:"The cafe on main street?"

self repair

corrects own pronunciation or word choice

pronunciation "Did you see that funny GIF, I mean JIF?"

word choice "Inflation of food prices effects, I mean, affects families in Australia

Other

S: "I went to the store yesterday"

L: "You mean today?

S: "Oh yes, today."

Purpose of Intimacy

current - very close social distance or the are using language to reduce social distance

a close personal and emotional relationship

Purpose of solidarity

indicated belonging to a group membership, closing social distance between strangers or people with different points of view or finding people with a similar point of view to reduce social distance (to make everyone feel included)

Purpose of equality

inclusive language avoids discrimination, using standard Australian English and avoiding slang, idioms and jargon

Morphological Word Formation - Affixation

prefixes (start), suffixes (end), infixes (middle) added to base of word to create new word, we modified meaning or grammatical function. affixes can change meaning, part of speech, or grammatical structure of bas word

eg. adding prefix 'un' to a word changes it to have the opposite meaning. un+happy = not happy

Morphological Word Formation - Abbreviation

iykyk

Morphological Word Formation - Acronyms

word formed from first letter or first few letters of a series of words adn the whole form is pronounced as a word

"'NASA" formed from first letters of '"National Aeronautics and Space Administration" Pronounced as word over individual letter

Morphological Word Formation - Blends

process where two or more words are combined to create new word, commonly used in informal language, can be used in branding to become more catchy

eg. 'smog' blend of 'smoke' and 'fog'

'brunch' us blend of 'breakfast' and 'lunch'

Morphological Word Formation - Backformation

when affixes are removed from a word to change the meaning

eg. 'edit' form 'editor', removing suffix 'or'

Morphological Word Formation - Compounding

refers to process of combining two or more words to create a new word, for a+ explain what kind of compounding it is

eg. 'toothbrush' compound noun of 'tooth' and 'brush'

'sunscreen' compound noun of 'sun' and 'screen'

Morphological Word Formation - Contraction

word phrase in which two or more words are combined and shortened to create a new word or phrase. formed by using auxilary verbs, pronouns or prepositions with other words. used mostly in informal speech or written but not in formal language

eg. contraction 'I'm' is formed by combing pronoun 'I' with auxilary verb 'am'

contraction 'didn't' is formed by combining auxilary verb 'did' with negative partucle 'not'

Morphological Word Formation - Conversion

word takes new meaning by changing it from one word class to another

eg. brand Google (proper noun) converted to a verb, using in phrases like 'i'll google it'

Morphological Word Formation - Initialisms

type of acronym with letter pronounced one at a time rather than as a word, used in both formal and informal language like acronyms

eg. GST - each letter pronounced individually rather than full phrase 'goods and services tax'

ATO replaces 'Australian taxation office'

Morphological Word Formation - Shortenings

process or creating new words by cutting off one or more syllables from a longer word, typically becomes a shorter more convenient version of original word. used to create slang words and informal language. can be made by removing affixes, can play an important role in development and evolution of language by making it more convenient and efficient

eg. 'ad' shortening of word 'advertisement'

'exam' shortening of word 'examination'

slang term 'doc' for 'doctor'

'bicycle' to 'cycle' by dropping affix 'bi'

Lexicological Word Formation - Borrowing

process where rather than creating a new lexeme, we absorb a lexeme from another language

eg. due to invasion of the united states, english language has borrowed words from other languages like:

entrepreneur - French, anonymous - Greek, kangaroo - aboriginal Australian English

Lexicological Word Formation - Commonisation

when proper noun becomes common noun and used without capital letter

eg. brand name 'onesie' now common noun 'i'm going to wear a onesie'

brand name 'escalator' now a common noun 'i'll meet you at the top of the escalator

Lexicological Word Formation - Neologisms

newly coined word or phrase, recently entered common usage. created by combining existing words, create new words from existing roots or by inventing new words completely. reflects evolution and creativity of language and play important role in growth and development of language

eg. 'selfie' was created in early 2000s to describe a self-portrait photograph taken with a smartphone

Lexicological Word Formation - Nominalisation

when word changes word class through use of suffixes, creation of noun by attaching suffix to existing noun or another part of speech. often used to evaluate lexi and is commonly used to abfuscate or exclude access to information for those who arent part of the in group

eg. verb 'achieve' becomes nominalised noun 'achieve + ment'

verb 'progress' becomes nominalised noun 'progress + ion'

Lexicological Word Formation - Archaism

words that have been outdated due to changes in language, culture and society

Lexicological Word Formation - Obsolescence

words that stop being used because they have become obsolete

Informal Language - Signifier

physical form or sound pattern associated with a particular concept or idea, sensory or perceptual aspect of the sign (words sound or written word on a page)

eg. for tree, sound pattern 't-r-e-e' is signifier

why are those the letters or sound for tree? it is random

Informal language - Signified

the mental concept or the meaning that is associated with the signifier, psychological or cognitive aspect of the sign, represent the idea or image that the signifier conjures in the mind

eg. for tree, mental representation of a tall woody plant with branches and leaves is the signified

Informal Language - Emblem gestures

non-verbal communications

eg. emoticons, kaomojis (emojis with text characters), emojis and graphemes all have meaning

meaning varies depending on context and cultural background of the user

Informal Language (e-communication) - Expressive

informal language is often more expressive than formal language

creativity and flexibility is demonstrated in internet chat forums, social media, text messages, emojis, etc

eg. different versions of laughing online (prioritises attitude of writer)

etymology of LOL (laugh out loud)

usually playful, joking attitude but also contextual

'i hate you lol' - has intimate tenor if the relationship is close

'i love you lol' - has demeaning tenor if there is tension in the relationship

Informal Language (e-communication) - Flexible punctuation

flexible use of punctuation creates tone, often used to indicate sarcasm or irony (understood through context - little concern as to whether every person understood the joke - people part of the joke will get it)

ironic online use of punctuation - 'scare quotation marks', ironic caps, #sarcasm

cohesion can be created through hashtags by grouping topics together #oscars

Informal Language (e-communication) - Spelling and vernacular

posts using # rather than @mentions often contain more slang for smaller audiences which includes regionalisms, local vocabulary, acronyms and emoticons

eg.

respelling mainstream language: Heyyyy

writing minoritised dialects: imma

writing minoritised languages: taa

Informal Language (e-communication) - Emojis (representation of gesture)

culture affects meaning of gestures through emojis

gestures can change meaning of a comment

in western cultures, depending on age/generation, thumbs up emojis mean 'well done' or 'sit on this'

in Latin American countries, the okay emoji means 'ass hole'

Informal Language (e-communication) - Emojis, emoticons and kaomojis (representation of mood)

often used to symbolise someone's mood without them having to explain in text how they are feeling

eg.

smiling face VS crying face

in western culture, mouth symbolises mood, created through emoticons, range of punctuation marks, letter and numbers to create facial expression

:) happy face or :( sad face

in Japanese culture, eyes symbolise kaomojis

^_^ smiling eyes, or T_T sad face

Informal Language (e-communication) - Graphemes

single letters are often used to represent words

eg. 'r u' = are you

# and @ can also be used to replace words

also context specific graphemes are used such as '=' symbol in maths and the copyright symbol ©

Phonological patterning

Informal expression, particularly slang, use many sound features as is often describes as ' the people's poetry'

Phonological patterning - Onomatopoeia

words that are spelt to create sound when they are pronounced aloud

eg. derp - someone's silly behaviour

Phew - sound that we associate with the feeling of relief

Whack - Australian's talk about whacking a cricket ball to mimic the sound of the ball hitting the bat

Phonological patterning - Assonance

words close together that repeat the same vowel sounds in the middle of the words

eg. lovey-dovey - 'mushy'

fancy-schmancy - 'posh'

easy-peasy - something is easy to do

Phonological patterning - Consonance

repition of consonant sounds in the middle of a word, brings flow, harmony and rhythm to sopken words

eg.

waltzing Matilda, Waltzing Matilda

I still call Australia home

Semantic Patterning

creates images in our mind, playfulness and humour with words. also provides expressive ways of communicating emotion, often cultural or colloquial forms of semantic pattering

FISHLAMPOP

figurative language

irony

simile

lexical ambiguity

animation

metaphor

personification

oxymoron

puns

Semantic Patterning - Figurative Language

descriptive language the creates vivid imagery

eg. He's got kangaroos loose in the top paddock - creates imagery of kangaroo going wild in nature. idiom means someone is eccentric or crazy

Semantic Patterning - Irony

expressing an idea about a situation that is opposite of what's happening in reality. creates humour

eg. 'What a beautiful day!' when there is a thunderstorm

Semantic Patterning - Simile

compounding two things with words 'like' or 'as'

eg. 'He looked like a stunned mullet' comparing facial expression to a fish that's been hit on the head. showing shock

Semantic Patterning - Hyperbole

exaggeration to create humor or emotion

eg. 'I'm so hungry I could eat a horse'

Semantic Patterning - Lexical ambiguity

word or phrase that has more than one possible meaning so needs to be interpreted by listener or reader by understanding the context

eg. 'green' has 2 meanings depending on information around the word

"We are a green business" - environmentally friendly

"Colour the leaves in green" - colour

"She is green to the job" - new, innocent, naive

Semantic Patterning - animation

giving movement to an in-animate object

eg. 'the stone flew across the room' stones are in-animate, have no natural movement of their own

Semantic Patterning - Metaphor

comparing two things using 'is' or 'are'

eg. 'He's a few sandwiches short of a picnic' Comparison of person to a picnic, and if a few sandwiches short, means the person isn't all there, there's something missing

Semantic Patterning - Personification

giving a non-human object the qualities of a human

eg. 'a boxing kangaroo' kangaroos don't box for sports like humans, but the comparison helps people understand how kangaroos defend themselves with their paws

Semantic Patterning - Oxymoron

two words next to each that mean the opposite of one another

eg. 'honest politician'

Semantic Patterning - Puns

play on words, often for humorous or rhetorical effect, by using a word in such a way as to suggest two or more interpretations or meanings

eg. 'What do you get if you cross a cheep and a kangaroo? A woolly hopper'

Syntactic Patterning - Listing

repetition of a list of things

eg. 'Mum, I've got to go to camp and I need to buy shoes, snack and gloves'

Syntactic Patterning - Antithesis

speaking the opposite about something in the same sentence

'Did you see how beautiful the art was? Sideeye...'

'You went to that concert last night? No you didn't!'

Syntactic Patterning - Parallelism

repeating the same structure, clause or phrase one after the other

eg.

1: ‘She would reach out to people that we knew’

2: ‘And check in’

1: ‘And check in and she would get these that you would hear right, you’d hear ‘Oh he’s doing so well’ and she would be so pissed off because she’s like ‘He’s not doing well, without me’

In group membership

To have a membership is to show there is a sense of belonging between those who are part of the social group. Could be member of family, friendship group, club, sporting team, interest/hobby group, school community and many other types of social groups that exist

Those who belong to the group share a common language and this is an identifier of those who have been excepted to the group and have membership

Language that promotes 'in group membership'

Slang - highly informal, mostly spoken, playful, changes frequently

In-jokes - jokes and humour that only those who were there when the joke was first created would understand what it references or means

Nicknames = informal, personalised names that are only used by those who know the person intimately enough for it to be affectionate

Context specific graphemes, abbreviations - use of letters or graphemes, typically on social media, to represent lexemes that only those who use them understand

How language creates in group membership?

Closes social distance - creates close social distance between those who are part of the in-group

Creates equality - reduces power difference in hierarchies, establish camaraderie

Excludes - those who aren't part of the 'ingroup' don't understand what is being said, therefore cannot be part of the conversation

Reflects group norms - language reveals values, cultures or expectations regarding behaviour of the group

Euphimism

Dysphimism

Social harmony

language used to show respect, acceptance and friendliness towards individuals or groups within society. language used to promote positive social relationships and avoid embarrassment and division

inclusive and non discriminatory language maintains social harmony

racial, sexism homophobic, ageist and ableist language is avoided in order to avoid threatening social harmony

Negotiating social taboos

semantic domains that could be seen as socially awkward or inappropriate to discuss

eg. sex, death, racism

use strategies to make discussing things more palatable, humourous or light hearted

eg to help negotiate social taboos:

slang or colloquial language

word play (puns)

vocal effects such as laughter

euphemisms

dysphemisms

jargon

inclusive, respectful language

Rapport

friendly connection or understanding between people in a conversation, or between author and audience in written text. participants don't need to be friends

eg. may have good rapport with teacher but wouldn't attend the same social events

eg. retail customer service assistants and hospitality workers often aim to establish rapport with customers. might be persuasive technique to encourage them to buy more products or it could be linked to cultural expectations regarding politeness in australia

eg. to help establish rapport

backchanneling/minimal responses - indicates listening and interested

using inclusive language - eg. pronoun 'we' to demonstrate shared understanding

using positive politeness strategies - compliments

shifting topic towards mutually interesting semantic domains

using interrogatives to demonstrate an interest

using humour

using paralinguistic features such as smiling and nodding to encourage or indicate agreement

social distance

studied as a part of speech behaviour

short social distance

similar age range - school friends, sports teams, romantic relationships

same occupation - work place, field of work, similar income bracket

long social distance

police and civillians

federal government and members of general public

interviewer and interviewee

social distance strategies

reinforced

choosing language that maintains the social distance between speakers and listener/s

no effort being made to bring a listener closer

eg. speaker with cultivated accent may emphasise the accent to indicate they belong to a superior social group compared to the listener

eg. police using jargon and legal terms to assert themselves as more knowledgeable, having more authority or keep a professional distance when speaking to a civilian

reduced

speaker using language to reduce the social distance between themselves and the listener/s

attempt to build rapport or solidarity with an individal or group of people

closed

when there is no social distance between speaker and listener

very intimate relationship

positive face needs

relates to our self image (identity, how we look) and our need to be liked, admired, respected and appreciated by others. connects with ideas of intimacy, in group membership, equality, solidarity and rapport

social purpose of positive face needs - building rapport

friendly relationship in which people understand each other

to build rapport:

use small talk to initiate conversation

use greetings such as 'how are you'?'

ask favours of someone

offer to support or help someone

social purpose of positive face needs - intimacy

close, personal relationship with another person or group

give advice

offer short apologies without long explanation

tease and joke inappropriately

high levels of nagging

let down our 'politeness guard'

social purpose of positive face needs - solidarity

community of shared feelings, purpose and interests

to build solidarity

open conversations up to include others

find points of commonality in shared interests

complain about non-serious issues such as the weather, late buses, etc

jokes that don't embarrass and are appropriate for the context

social purpose of positive face needs - equality

being equal to another in rank, value and ability

social status determines the equality of a speaker

affects rights and obligations of who may say what to whom

those who speak in non-standard English often have less power

gender - women's style of speaking can be devalued in certain contexts due to lesser social status compared with males

social purpose of positive face needs - in group membership

social purpose of positive face needs - in group membership

social purpose of positive face needs - situation for strategies

influenced by power of speaker in relation to listener and degree of social distance between the speakers

speaking with people who have a higher social status

to increase desirability to a significant other

formal situations

when there is a social distance

social purpose of positive face needs - strategies

complementing

agreeing

being humble

showing support

being respectful

using in-group language

eg.

'please', 'thank you', 'excuse me' - respectful tenor

compliments: offering genuine compliments and praise to affirm someone's abilites, accomplishments, positive attributes. 'you did an excellent job on the project presentation, your hard work really paid off'

appreciation: verbally acknowledging and expressing gratitude for someone's actions or contributions 'thank you for your help, i really appreciate your support'

active listening/validation to show solidarity: engaging in active listening by attentively listening to others, acknowledging their feelings and validating their perspectives '"i understand how you feel", or "that's a valid point" - shows solidarity

show equality: "we're all in this together, and I really appreciate each of you taking the time to be here. thanks, everyone!"

convey in group membership: "I'm so grateful to have friends who always have my back"

building rapport by sharing info about yourself, assuming they'll share back "your taste in music and movies is on point. we should hang out more often"

offering engagement and support: provide emotional support, encouragement, and reassurance to bolster someone's confidence and well being, "i believe in you, you've got this"

social purpose of positive face needs - threatening acts

actions or behaviours that pose a risk to someone's need for inclusion, sense of identity, self-image

expressing disapproval about someone's values or possessions in the form of insults, accusations, or complaints

indicating that the other person is wrong such as disagreements or contradictions

Negative face needs

taking actions without being forced or stopped by others. doing what you want, when you want, however you choose to do it, without someone else using your time and energy

Negative face needs - politeness strategies

avoid telling others what to do

avoid asking for favours

avoid offering or promising people something that will make them feel as though they 'owe' you

Negative face needs - threatening acts

actions or behaviours that pose a risk to someone's need to autonomy, freedom, or independence, often causing discomfort of inconvenience

requests that demand or hint that someone should do something

asking for personal information when there is a long social distance

offers and promises that incur a 'debt' from the other person

Negative face needs - politeness strategies to attend to negative face needs

self-criticism

‘it was completely my fault, and I understand if you’re upset’

using honorifics - show respect

‘excuse me, Mr. Smith, I understand you’re quite busy, but if it’s not too much trouble, could you possibly square a moment to review this report? ‘

lack of precision - softens directness and the request

‘could you possibly, like, help out with, you know, that thing we talked about earlier?’

concern for the hearer’s self image - minimizes embarrassment

"‘i noticed a small typo in your presentation slides, I know you always strive for perfection, and I’m sure it’s just a minor oversight

Cohesion

linguistic connections

cohesion is how a text fits/connects together linguistically. cohesion is 'the glue that sticks a sentence to another in a paragraph or a paragraph to another in a text'

Coherence

understanding

way discourse makes sense to its readers. text has coherence if its sentences follow on one from the other in an orderly fashion so that the reader can make sense of the entire text. means that the discourse is easy to read and understand because it follows a logical order and the organization of ideas is systematical and logical

Coherence factors - FLICCC (Formatting)

appearance of the text that modifies the meaning in any way. it is the things we first notice about the text: colours, fonts, bold text, layout, use of paragraphing, italics, lists, subheadings, etc

Coherence factors - FLICCC (Logical Order)

structures and order of ideas allows readers to understand in a much clearer way

Coherence factors - FLICCC (Inference)

Using lexical references that rely on readers/listeners knowledge and understanding about an aspect of the context in order to fully understand the text. some texts may be incoherent to some if they do not know the situational context, or if inference is relied on too heavily

Coherence factors - FLICCC (Consistency)

using a consistent approach with formatting, tense, register, semantic domain, pronoun references and lexical choices