Unit 0,1

Cultural Norms

Shared rules and expectations within a culture that guide behavior.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms preexisting beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one’s knowledge, abilities, or accuracy.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

An extraneous factor that affects the results, making it unclear if the IV caused the change.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome variable that is measured.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups randomly to minimize bias.

Case Study

An in-depth study of one individual or small group.

Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables (does not imply causation).

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique combining results from multiple studies.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural environment without interference.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

A hypothesis must be able to be proven wrong.

Operational Definitions

Clearly defining variables in measurable terms.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm results.

Central Tendency

A single value describing the center of a data set.

Variation

How spread out the data is.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores below a given value.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a data set.

Median

The middle value in an ordered data set.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution of data.

Positive Skew

A distribution with a long tail on the right.

Negative Skew

A distribution with a long tail on the left.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two peaks.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out scores are around the mean.

Regression Toward the Mean

Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average over time.

Sample

A subset of a population used in research.

Population

The entire group researchers are interested in studying.

Representative Sample

A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Convenience Sampling

Using readily available participants which may introduce bias.

Generalizing

Applying research findings to a broader population.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The group not exposed to the IV; used for comparison.

Placebo

A harmless substance with no therapeutic effect, used as a control.

Placebo Effect

Improvement due to the expectation of receiving treatment.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don’t know whether they’re in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.

Experimenter Bias

Researchers’ expectations influence results.

Social Desirability Bias

Participants answer in ways they think are socially acceptable.

Qualitative Research/Measures

Non-numerical data.

Structured Interviews

Interviews with predetermined questions.

Quantitative Research/Measures

Numerical data.

Likert Scales

A rating scale measuring attitudes.

Representation of Participants

Ensuring the sample reflects diversity.

Peer Review

Experts evaluate research before publication.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistic showing the strength/direction of a correlation.

Effect Sizes

The magnitude of a relationship or difference.

Statistical Significance

A result unlikely due to chance.

Directionality Problem

Uncertainty about which variable causes the other.

Third Variable Problem

An unmeasured factor that may explain the correlation.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that ensures ethical research practices.

Informed Consent

Participants voluntarily agree to participate after understanding risks.

Informed Assent

Agreement from participants who can’t give full consent.

Protection from Harm

Researchers must minimize physical and psychological harm.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants’ data private.

Deception

Misleading participants, allowed only if justified.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of the study afterward.

Heredity

The genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

Nature

The influence of genes on behavior.

Nurture

The influence of the environment on behavior.

Genetic Predisposition

Increased likelihood of developing a trait due to genes.

Evolutionary Perspective

Explaining behavior as adaptations for survival.

Natural Selection

Traits enhancing survival/reproduction become more common.

Eugenics

Controlled breeding to increase “desirable” traits.

Twin Studies

Comparing identical and fraternal twins to study influences.

Family Studies

Examining trait prevalence among relatives.

Adoption Studies

Comparing adopted children to biological/adoptive families.

Central Nervous System

The body’s command center.

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary functions.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates “fight-or-flight” responses.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body; responsible for rest and digestion.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movements.

Neurons

Nerve cells that transmit electrical and chemical signals.

Glial Cells

Support cells for neurons that provide nutrients and insulation.

Reflex Arc

Neural pathway controlling reflex actions.

Sensory Neurons

Carry information from sense receptors to the CNS.

Motor Neurons

Carry signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Neurons within the CNS that process information.

Neural Transmission

Process of electrical and chemical signaling between neurons.

Action Potential

Electrical impulse traveling down an axon.

All-or-Nothing Principle

Neurons either fire completely or not at all.

Depolarization

Reduction of charge difference across neuron membrane.

Refractory Period

Brief recovery time after neuron firing.

Resting Potential

Neuron's stable negative charge when inactive.

Reuptake

Neurotransmitter reabsorption by sending neuron.

Threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to trigger action potential.

Multiple Sclerosis

Autoimmune disease damaging myelin sheaths.

Myasthenia Gravis

Condition causing muscle weakness from neurotransmitter problems.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals promoting neuron firing.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals preventing neuron firing.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter for reward and movement.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter regulating mood and sleep.