Full Psych Glossary

short-term memory

where information is used and manipulated, allows one to retain information for long enough to use it in that moment, susceptible to displacement
capacity of 5-9 items, 18-30 seconds duration

sensory memory

information received by sense organ, an exact replica of real world, if attended to, information is transferred to STM, otherwise it is quickly lost and not processed, acts as a filter
unlimited capacity, brief duration

operant conditioning

the learning process by which the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the consequences of the behaviour
desirable consequences = repeat behaviour
undesirable consequences = not repeat behaviour

long-term memory

information is encoded and stored for later retrieval (relatively permanent), stored semantically (by meaning), forms semantic networks
virtually unlimited capacity and duration

frequency

how fast brainwaves occur per second, how close together the waves are when they happen
(high frequency=high activity)

echoic memory

auditory sensory memory in raw form, allows one to understand language
unlimited capacity, 3-4 seconds duration

ability to cope with and manage change and uncertainty

having coping skills can assist a person to deal with stressors and develop ways to manage difficulty

aboriginal and torres strait islander peoples

the oldest known continuous cultures in the world with a diversity of nations, clans, languages, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs which have survived for over 65,000 years

acceptance

a subjective experience wherein one embraces uncomfortable thoughts and feelings in a respectful, non-judgemental manner, and can choose how to respond to stimuli they are attending to

accuracy

how closely the measurement tool relates to what is being measured

acetylcholine

excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory

acquisition

the overall process during which an organism learns to associate two events (NS and UCS)

acronyms

pronounceable words formed from the first letters of a group of words, does not have to be real, but must be pronounceable

acrostics

making verbal associations for items to be remembered by constructing sentences/phrases using the first letters of the information to be remembered

action potential

a neural message (in the form of an electrical charge) that travels down the axon and terminates in the release of neurotransmitters

acute stress

stress that lasts for a relatively short-time, can be perceived positively or negatively

adaptive behaviour

any behaviour that enables the individual to adjust to the environment appropriately and effectively

adaptive plasticity

wherein patients of brain injuries can recover lost functions through rehabilitation, surviving neurons take over the functions of dead brain tissue

adequate nutritional intake and hydration

eating a good amount of a variety of different foods and ensuring one drinks enough water to maintain good physical health and feel mentally well as a result

adequate sleep

waking up feeling rested, refreshed and ready for the day, feeling positive about oneself and their abilities, sufficient quantity and quality of sleep

adolescents (13-19) sleep characteristics

8-10 hrs, approx. 20% REM, naturally want to sleep later due to delayed melatonin release

adults/older people sleep characteristics

approx. 8 hrs, approx. 20% REM, lighter/less sleep with age

advanced sleep phase disorder (ASPD)

a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by an earlier timing of sleep onset and awakening, compared with desired timing
shift workers are susceptible

affective

amplified emotional responses, mood disturbances (irritability and feelings of sadness), heightened anxiety, lack of motivation, increased aggression, feelings of fatigue, difficulty regulating emotions

afferent pathway

a neural pathway that carries information towards the brain or spinal cord

classical conditioning after stage

CS-> CR

agonist

a chemical agent mimics the activity of the neurotransmitter

aim

a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation

alarm reaction (counter-shock)

second stage of immediate response, after shock, the body rallies and is mobilised to fight/flee from the stressor, ability to cope recovers from the dip and is higher than normal
adrenaline increases heart rate, and blood pressure
cortisol curbs functions that would be nonessential or harmful in fight/flight situation, like sympathetic NS activation (fight-flight)

alarm reaction (shock)

first stage of immediate response, after one is faced with a new stressor, the body temporarily goes into shock, ability to cope dips lower than normal
muscle tension, blood pressure drops, like parasympathetic NS activation (freeze)

altered state of consciousness (ASC)

any state of consciousness that is significantly different from normal waking consciousness or any waking state in terms of level of awareness and experiences
mental processing of internal and external stimuli shows distinguishable, measurable changes

alzheimer's disease

a neurodegenerative, fatal disease, progressive decline in structure, activity and function of brain tissue due to neurons gradually deteriorating and losing their function

amygdala

located next to hippocampus in medial temporal lobe, adds emotional content (of all types) to memories, assists in LTM consolidation, regulates emotions
explicit = episodic, implicit = classically conditioned

amplitude

how high/low the wave is- the size of each wave/the wave pattern, how many neurons are firing together simultaneously
(high peaks/low troughs=more synchronised activity from multiple neurons)

amygdala damaged

cannot form memories with emotional content, won't show fear response to threat, unable to be fear conditioned

amyloid plaques

occurs when beta-amyloid proteins build up between synapses and interfere with communication between neurons

anecdote

an informal verbal report of an event that has been casually observed, accepted as useful information but not based on scientific evidence (scientifically inadequate)

antagonist

a chemical agent that inhibits the activity of a neurotransmitter

antecedent stimulus AKA discriminative stimulus

an object or event that precedes a specific behaviour and signals the probable consequence for the behaviour and therefore influences that occurrence of the behaviour

anterograde amnesia

a type of memory loss causing difficulty in forming new long-term memories

anticipatory anxiety

worry or apprehension about the possibility of being exposed to a phobic stimulus in the future, often accompanied by physical tension

anxiety

a state of arousal involving feelings of apprehension or uneasiness that something is wrong or something unpleasant is about to happen, considered future-oriented (anticipating threat)
rapid heart beat, faster respiration rate, tense muscles

anxiety disorders

a group of mental health disorders that are characterised by chronic feelings of worry, excessive apprehension or fear about the future, with an overall negative effect on their lives

aphantasia

a condition where the person cannot visualise imagery and have difficulty imagining possible futures/hypothetical events

appraisal

the cognitive evaluation of the nature and significance of a stressor

approach coping strategies

efforts to confront stress and deal with it/its effects directly, activity is focused towards the stressor and aims/attempts to reduce the impact of the stressor
(most effective with threat/challenge)

appropriateness

the consequence must be suitable for the learner and the situation, therefore it may change for each learner

atkinson-shiffrin multi-store model

a representation and explanation of memory as consisting of three separate stores called sensory memory, short=term memory and long-term memory, differing in function, capacity and duration

attention

ability to consciously choose what one focuses on and to pay attention to one's present internal and external states

attention (observational learning)

learner must focus on, or closely watch, model's behaviour and its consequences
influenced by motivation/interest level of observer, self-efficacy of learner, distractions, and importance/distinctiveness of the behaviour

autobiographical memory

a mixture of episodic and semantic memory, episodes recalled from life

automatic nervous system

subdivision of peripheral nervous system, network of nerves that carries neural messages between CNS and involuntary muscles, internal organs, and glands, regulates functioning of internal organs at stable level, prepares body to deal with threatening situations

avoidance behaviour

actions that help to avert any contact, exposure or engagement with the phobic stimulus

avoidance strategies

efforts that evade stressor and do not deal with it/its effects or does so indirectly, activity is focused away from the stressor and does not attempt to confront stressor and causes
(most effective with harm/loss event)

basal ganglia

located close to hippocampus and amygdala, a group of structures involved in implicit procedural memories, linked to habituation/establishing habitual behaviour, in8volved in the generation of voluntary movements

before stage

NS -> irrelevant response, UCS -> UCR

behaviour

any action made by a living person (or animal) that can be observed or measured

behaviour (operant conditioning)

the action that is displayed by the individual (operant component)

behaviour activation/activity scheduling

identifying and scheduling activities that promote enjoyment or reduce stress

behavioural sleep deprivation symptoms

slower reaction times, clumsiness and injuries, risk-taking behaviour, problems performing simple and/or monotonous tasks or ones requiring continued attention, sleep inertia, increased risk of microsleep

behavioural models

proposes that phobias are learned through experience and may be acquired, maintained or modified by environmental consequences, such as reinforcement and punishment

behaviourist approaches to learning

emphasise the study of observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning, without regard to underlying mental processes

beneficence

the researcher's responsibility to maximise the potential benefits of the research and minimise the risks of harm/discomfort to all research participants

benzodiazepines

a group of drugs that work on the central nervous system, GABA agonists, acting selectively on GABA receptors in the brain to increase GABA's inhibitory effects and make postsynaptic neurons resistant to excitation

between subjects design (independent groups)

an experimental design in which each participant is assigned to only one group or condition and provides only one score for data analysis

biased sample

a sample that does not adequately represent the key characteristics of its population

biological clock

an innate timing mechanism that regulates one or more biological rhythms

biological factors (biopsychosocial model)

physiologically based or determined influences, often not under one's control
inherited genes, sex, balances or imbalances of neurotransmitters, nervous system functioning

biological rhythms

naturally occurring physiological, psychological and behavioural functions which follow a set pattern of periodic changes, repeating through time in a cyclical way

biopsychosocial approach/model

a way of describing and explaining how biological, psychological and social factors combine and interact to influence a person's mental health and wellbeing

blood alcohol concentration (BAC)

a measure of alcohol in the body expressed as grams of alcohol/100mL of blood

brain

receives and interprets information from the sensory systems, sends motor messages out to all parts of body to make co-ordinated and appropriate response

brain atrophy

occurs because amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles progressively damage neurons, which die, which causes shrinkage of the brain

breathing retraining

an anxiety management technique that involves teaching correct breathing habits to people with a specific phobia

bright light therapy

timed exposure to artificial light to reset sleep-wake cycle, prompts the wake-inducing biological mechanisms to promote wakefulness, morning for DSPS, evening for ASPS

case study

an intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour/event or problem of interest in an individual, group, organisation, or situation

catastrophic thinking

a thinking style which involves overestimating, exaggerating, or magnifying an object, activity or situation and predicting the worst possible outcome

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

cerebellum

structure at the base of the brain with multiple roles, involved in processing, encoding (w/o hippocampus), and temporary storage of procedural memories, and activities requiring a sequence of coordinated, timed, movements
temporarily stores simple reflexes from classical conditioning, interacts with motor areas in basal ganglia and neocortex for memories of simple and complex movement

challenge

assessment of the personal gain/growth that may come from the situation

change bias

one exaggerates the difference between what they knew or felt then and what they currently know or feel

children (3-12) sleep characteristics

approx. 9-13 hrs, approx. 25% REM, 50% slow wave decreasing

chronic stress

stress that continues for a prolonged period of time
enables increased arousal for longer periods but more likely to lead to long-term problems

circadian phase disorders/circadian rhythm sleep disorder

a group of sleep disorders involving persistent sleep disruption that is primarily due to a mismatch between an individual's sleep-wake pattern and their required routine

circadian rhythms

internally governed sleep-wake cycle of around 24 hours, controlling our levels of alertness, body temperature, and the secretion of growth hormones
most awake/alert during the day and most drowsy/sleepy early in the morning

classical conditioning

a three-phase learning process that occurs through repeated association of two (or more) different stimuli, resulting in involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus

classical conditioning precipitation

a stimulus with no particular significance, becomes, by association, a sign of impending threat, danger or some other unpleasant event

classically conditioned memory

involuntary responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning, can also include reflexive associations and often involve emotional associations that occur involuntarily, very resistant to forgetting

classification

arranging phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets

cognitive sleep deprivation symptoms

difficulty paying attention and concentrating, poor decision-making and problem-solving, difficulty processing information, memory problems, impaired creativity, distorted perception

cognitive behavioural strategies

techniques drawn from cognitive behavioural therapy to identify, assess and correct faulty thinking patterns and problem behaviours that may be threatening or adversely affecting mental wellbeing

cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

a type of psychotherapy that combines cognitive and behavioural therapies to treat phobias and other mental health problems and disorders, assumes that the way people feel and behave is largely a product of the way they think

cognitive bias

a systematic error of thinking that affects decisions and judgements, usually leading to inaccurate or unreasonable conclusions

cognitive model

emphasises the role of mental processes in describing and explaining behaviour

cognitive restructuring

the individual identifies their cognitive biases and other negative, irrational ways of thinking, refutes them, and modifies them to be more adaptive and reasonable

community

a group of people who live in the same location or who share an interest or characteristic in common and who interact (or have potential to interact)

computerised tomography (CT)

uses x-ray equipment to scan the brain at different angles, computer builds up picture and creates image of horizontal cross-section of brain

conclusion

a decision about what the results obtained from a research investigation mean

conditioned response

an involuntary, reflexive response that is produced by the conditioned stimulus after conditioning has taken place

conditioned stimulus

an object or event which has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus after many paired associations