AP European History: 👑 UNIT THREE: ABSOLUTISM AND CONSTITUTIONALISM (1648-1815)

Sovereignty

The authority of a state to govern itself without outside interference; in the 17th century, monarchs and states sought to establish complete control over laws, armies, and religion within their borders

Political Centralization

The process of consolidating power under a single ruler or governing body, reducing the influence of nobles, local rulers, or regional authorities

Secular

• Non-religious or separate from the Church

• During this period, governments increasingly based laws and authority on state power rather than religious authority

Political Institutions

• The structures and systems that organize government power, such as monarchies, parliaments, and bureaucracies

• These evolved during this era to strengthen or limit monarchs’ authority

Absolutism / Absolute Monarchy

The political theory and practice of giving unrestricted power to a monarch, who rules under the belief that their authority comes directly from God.

English Civil War (1642–1649)

• A conflict between the monarchy (Charles I) and Parliament, along with their supporters, over control of government and taxation

• Ended with the execution of Charles I and the temporary establishment of a republic under Oliver Cromwell

• Effect: this war significantly weakened the concept of absolute monarchy in England and paved the way for future parliamentary influence

Gentry

• The wealthy landowning class below the nobility in European states

• In England during they gained political influence through Parliament and played a key role in challenging absolutism during the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution

Aristocracy

• The hereditary nobility who held traditional privileges, titles, and land

• Often clashed with monarchs seeking to centralize power

Parliament

• The representative legislative body of England, made up of the House of Lords and the House of Commons

• It gained increased power after the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution, limiting the monarch’s authority

House of Commons

• The lower house of Parliament, made up mostly of the gentry, merchants, and professionals (wealthy commoners who owned land but were not nobles)

• During the 17th century this house gained greater political influence, especially in taxation and government spending

• Key force in challenging royal authority during the English Civil War

• After Glorious Revolution: Gained more power under the Consitutional monarchy established by the Bill of Rights 1689

House of Lords

• The upper house of Parliament, composed of the aristocracy and high-ranking clergy (nobles and bishops who held hereditary titles or Church offices)

• Traditionally supported monarchical authority and defended the privileges of the nobility

• After Glorious Revolution: Power began to decline as the House of Commons grew more assertive

Oliver Cromwell (r. 1653-1658)

• Puritan military leader who led the Parliamentarian forces (Roundheads) during the English Civil War

• Cause: Came to power after the execution of Charles I and collapse of monarchy

• Effect: Ruled as Lord Protector in a Puritan military dictatorship (the Commonwealth), temporarily abolishing the monarchy

Restoration (1660)

• The return of the monarchy after Cromwell’s rule, when Charles II (son of Charles I) was invited back to take the throne

• Cause: Dissatisfaction with Cromwell’s strict Puritan regime and political instability

• Effect: Monarchy, Church of England, and Parliament were restored, though tensions over religion and royal power remained

James I (r. 1603–1625)

• The first Stuart king of England, who believed in the divine right of kings and absolute monarchy

• Cause: Succeeded Elizabeth I becuase she had no heir

• Effect: Clashed with Parliament over taxes and royal authority, setting the stage for future conflicts under his son, Charles I

Charles I (r. 1625–1649)

• Stuart monarch whose conflicts with Parliament over taxation, religion, and divine right led to the English Civil War

• Effect: Tried for treason, executed in 1649, marking the temporary overthrow of monarchy in England

Parliamentarians (Roundheads)

• Supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War, mainly Puritans, merchants, and the gentry, who opposed the king’s attempt at absolute power

• Effect: Defeated the Royalists and helped establish the Commonwealth under Cromwell

Royalists (Cavaliers)

• Supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War, typically nobles, Anglicans, and Catholics who defended traditional monarchy

• Effect: Lost the war, leading to the execution of the king and the temporary abolition of the monarchy

Long Parliament (1640–1660)

• The Parliament called by Charles I that lasted on and off for 20 years; refused to dissolve without its own consent

• Cause: Charles needed funds for wars

• Effect: Monarchy passed laws limiting royal authority, contributing to the outbreak of the English Civil War

Rump Parliament (1648–1653)

• Parliament created from the Long Parliament after Cromwell purged members who opposed trying the king

• Effect: Abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, declared England a republic (Commonwealth)

Charles II (r. 1660–1685)

• Son of Charles I, restored to the throne during the Restoration (1660)

• Cause: Dissatisfaction with Cromwell’s Puritan military dictatorship and desire for political stability

• Effect: Reestablished the monarchy, Church of England, and Parliament, while navigating tensions between royal authority and parliamentary power

James II (r. 1685–1688)

• Brother of Charles II and last Catholic monarch of England; sought to expand royal power and promote Catholicism

• Cause: His openly Catholic policies alarmed Protestant elites and Parliament

• Effect: Overthrown in the Glorious Revolution, replaced by William III and Mary II, leading to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy

William of Orange (William III)

• Dutch prince and stadtholder who invaded England in 1688 with the support of English nobles, leading to the Glorious Revolution

• Policies/Events:

  • Led Grand Alliance against Louis XIV in Nine Years’ War (1688–1697) and War of Spanish Succession

  • Upheld Protestant succession in England after Glorious Revolution (1688)

• Effect: Shared the throne with Mary II, accepting constitutional limits on royal power under the Bill of Rights 1689

• Symbol of constitutional monarchy and Protestant coalition diplomacy

Mary II

• Daughter of James II and wife of William of Orange; ruled jointly with him after the Glorious Revolution

• Effect: Together they accepted the English Bill of Rights (1689), establishing a constitutional monarchy

Glorious Revolution (1688–1689)

• The bloodless overthrow of James II, replaced by William III and Mary II

• Cause: Fear of a Catholic dynasty under James II

• Effect: Marked the end of absolutism in England and the beginning of parliamentary sovereignty and constitutional monarchy

Bill of Rights (1689)

• Law passed by Parliament after the Glorious Revolution, limiting the monarch’s power and guaranteeing rights such as free elections, regular Parliaments, and free speech in Parliament

• Effect: Created a constitutional framework ensuring that the monarch ruled with Parliament’s consent

Parliamentary Sovereignty

• The principle that Parliament has ultimate authority over the monarchy and laws of England

• Effect: Ended the idea of divine-right monarchy and established the foundation for modern democratic governance

Constitutional Monarchy

• A form of government in which a monarch’s power is limited by laws and a constitution, and they must govern in partnership with Parliament

• Effect: Became the lasting political settlement in England after the Glorious Revolution

Lord Protectorate

• The title held by Oliver Cromwell when he ruled England after the execution of Charles I (1649–1658)

• Cause: The monarchy was abolished and England became a republic (Commonwealth)

• Effect: Cromwell exercised quasi-monarchical power under a military-backed government, but this system ended with his death, paving the way for the Restoration of Charles II.

Parliamentarian Army (New Model Army)

• The professional army organized by Parliament during the English Civil War, led by Oliver Cromwell

• Cause: Parliament needed a disciplined military force to defeat the Royalists

• Effect: Defeated Royalist forces, helped execute Charles I, and supported the Rump Parliament and Cromwell’s rule

Gunpowder Plot (1605)

• A failed Catholic conspiracy to blow up the English Parliament and assassinate King James I

• Cause: Religious conflict between Catholics and the Protestant monarchy

• Effect: Increased anti-Catholic sentiment, reinforced Parliamentary loyalty to the king, and led to stricter laws against Catholics

Archbishop Laud

• Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I, who tried to impose uniformity in the Church of England and enforce Anglican practices

• Cause: Charles I’s desire for religious conformity and to strengthen royal control over the church

• Effect: His policies angered Puritans and Presbyterians, leading to rebellion in Scotland (Bishops’ Wars) and growing opposition in Parliament

Personal Rule (1629–1640)

• 11-year period when Charles I ruled without Parliament, often called the “Eleven Years’ Tyranny”

• Cause: Conflict with Parliament over taxation and the Petition of Right (1628)

• Effect: Charles raised money through unpopular taxes (like ship money and forced loans), increasing resentment and setting the stage for the Long Parliament and English Civil War

Triennial Act (1641)

• Law passed by Parliament requiring that Parliament be called at least once every three years and could not be dissolved without its consent

• Cause: Fear that Charles I would continue ignoring Parliament after his Personal Rule

• Effect: Limited the monarch’s control over Parliament and contributed to the constitutional crisis leading to the English Civil War

Petition of Right (1628)

• A Parliamentary document presented to Charles I, demanding an end to taxation without consent, imprisonment without cause, and forced housing of soldiers

• Cause: Parliament’s effort to protect traditional rights and limit royal absolutism

• Effect: Charles’s refusal to honor it deepened mistrust between king and Parliament, leading to his time of “Personal Rule”

Divine Right of Kings

The belief that monarchs derive their authority directly from God, not from their subjects, and are accountable only to God.

The Bishops’ Wars (1639–1640)

• Two conflicts between Charles I and Scotland, triggered by his attempt to impose the Anglican prayer book on the Scottish Presbyterian Church

• Cause: Religious tension over Charles’s and Laud’s attempts at religious uniformity

• Effect: Forced Charles to recall Parliament (after 11 years) to raise funds, leading to the Long Parliament and escalating toward civil war

Test Act (1673)

• A law passed by Parliament requiring all government and military officials to take Communion in the Church of England and reject Catholic doctrine

• Cause: Fear of growing Catholic influence under Charles II

• Effect: Excluded Catholics and dissenters from public office and increased religious tension, especially during the reigns of Charles II and James II

Cabal Council (1660s–1670s)

• An informal group of five ministers from noble and gentry influence who advised Charles II; its name comes from the initials of its members

• Cause: Charles II sought to govern through a small circle of trusted advisors rather than Parliament

• Effect: The Cabal was politically divided (some Catholic, some Protestant), leading to instability and the passage of the Test Act to limit Catholic influence

England’s Political System after the Grorious Revolution (1688)

• Constitutional Monarchy established

• Cabinet System developed — ministers from Parliament advised and carried out policy

• Party Politics emerge in Parliament

  • Tories: Supported monarchy and the Anglican Church (conservative, upper class)

  • Whigs: Favored Parliament and religious tolerance (middle class, merchants)

• Economic and Social Consequences:

  • England became politically stable, encouraging further dominance in commerce and trade WHICH

  • Laid groundwork for the Industrial Revolution in the next century

Crop Rotation

• A farming method in which different crops are planted sequentially in the same field to preserve soil nutrients and increase yields

• Cause: Need to prevent soil exhaustion from continuous planting of grain

• Effect: Boosted agricultural productivity, supported population growth, and freed labor for industrial work

Mixed Farming

• A system combining crop cultivation and livestock raising, where animal manure fertilized crops and crop byproducts fed livestock

• Effect: Improved soil health and created self-sustaining rural economies, especially in England and the Low Countries

Seed Drill (1701)

• Invented by Jethro Tull

• It planted seeds in evenly spaced rows and at consistent depth

• Effect: Reduced waste, improved germination, and increased overall yields — a key step toward mechanized agriculture

Mechanical Hoe

• A soil-cultivating tool improved by Jethro Tull to aerate soil and control weeds more efficiently than manual hoeing

• Effect: Increased efficiency and supported scientific farming methods

Thresher (1786)

• Invented by Andrew Meikle, the thresher mechanically separated grain from stalks

• Effect: Dramatically reduced manual labor, accelerated harvests, and contributed to the mechanization of agriculture

Enclosure Movement

• The consolidation of common lands into privately owned farms, often by wealthy landlords

• Cause: Desire for higher profits and efficiency through improved farming techniques

• Effect: Displaced peasant farmers, leading to urban migration, rural depopulation, and the rise of a landless working class

Yeomen Farmer

• A small, independent landowner who worked his own land; symbol of rural self-sufficiency in England

• Effect: Many lost land due to enclosure, joining the urban labor force during early industrialization

Water Meadow

• Irrigated pasturelands that prevented frost and promoted early grass growth for feeding livestock

• Effect: Improved animal breeding, increased meat and dairy supply, and contributed to the Agricultural Revolution

Commercial Revolution (1500–1750)

• A period of European economic expansion, colonial trade, and financial innovation

• Cause: Growth of overseas empires and colonial markets

• Effect: Rise of capitalism, banking institutions, and global trade networks

Mercantilism

• An economic theory that nations should export more than they import and accumulate gold and silver reserves

• Effect: Encouraged colonization, monopolies, and navigation laws; fostered rivalries among European powers

Colonization

• The establishment of settlements and control over foreign territories for economic gain and political power

• Effect: Expanded European empires, generated wealth through resource extraction, and intensified the Atlantic slave trade

Middle Passage

• The transatlantic voyage carrying enslaved Africans to the Americas

• Effect: Resulted in the death of millions, formed part of the Triangle Trade, and fueled European plantation economies

Triangular Trade

• Three-part Atlantic trade system linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas

• Cause: European demand for labor and raw materials from colonies

• Event: Ships carried manufactured goods to Africa, exchanged for enslaved Africans, who were transported to the Americas; raw materials (sugar, cotton, tobacco) then sent to Europe

• Effect: Enriched European economies but relied on brutal slave labor, fueling the Atlantic economy and early industrial growth

Plantation system

• Large agricultural estates in the Americas that used enslaved labor to produce cash crops like sugar, cotton, and tobacco

• Cause: European colonization and mercantilist demand for profitable crops

• Effect: Generated massive wealth for Europe while perpetuating the Atlantic slave trade and social inequality in colonies

Navigation Acts (1651–1673)

• British mercantilist laws regulating trade within the empire

• Cause: England’s goal to control colonial trade and outcompete Dutch merchants

• Event: Required all goods to be carried on English ships and pass through English ports

• Effect: Strengthened British maritime power but angered American colonists, laying groundwork for colonial resistance

Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752–1834)

• French inventor who revolutionized textile production with the Jacquard loom (1801)

• Cause: Demand for patterned silk textiles and labor-saving technology

• Event: Used punch cards to automate weaving patterns

• Effect: Early step toward industrial automation; influenced later inventions such as computer programming

Primogeniture

• Inheritance system where the eldest son inherited the family estate

• Cause: Feudal tradition meant to keep estates intact

• Effect: Forced younger sons to seek wealth abroad → contributed to European exploration, colonization, and plantation economies

Agricultural Revolution

• Period of major farming innovation in Britain that increased food production and efficiency

• Cause: Rising population and demand for food; scientific experimentation

• Event: Use of crop rotation, mixed farming, selective breeding, and new machinery like the seed drill and iron plow

• Effect: Boosted population growth, freed labor for cities, and laid the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution

Canal Systems

• Network of man-made waterways built to improve transportation of goods and resources

• Cause: Need for faster, cheaper ways to move agricultural and industrial products

• Effect: Connected markets, reduced transport costs, and supported the Commercial and Industrial Revolutions

Dikes

• Barriers or embankments built to hold back water and reclaim land from the sea

• Cause: Dutch expertise in land reclamation; need for more arable farmland

• Effect: Expanded usable farmland; British adoption of this technology increased agricultural productivity

Columbian Exchange

• Global exchange of plants, animals, people, and ideas between the Old World and the New World

• Cause: European exploration and colonization after Columbus’s voyages

• Event: New crops (like potatoes, maize, tomatoes) improved European diets

• Effect: Reduced famine, increased population, and connected global economies, but also spread disease and enslavement

Wool Cycle

• The process of wool production from sheep raising to weaving and selling textiles

• Cause: Britain’s natural conditions for sheep farming and high European demand

• Effect: Drove proto-industrialization and urban wage labor, making wool the cornerstone of Britain’s early economy

Market Economy

• Economic system where prices and production are determined by supply and demand, not by tradition or state command

• Cause: Growth of trade, banking, and property rights during the Commercial Revolution

• Effect: Encouraged entrepreneurship, innovation, and the rise of capitalism

Hugo Grotius (1583–1645)

• Dutch lawyer and philosopher who developed the idea of eminent domain—the state’s right to take private property for public use with compensation

• Cause: Early modern debates over sovereignty and property rights

• Effect: Influenced international law and theories of state power and ownership

Samuel von Pufendorf (1632–1694)

• German philosopher who argued that private property must be sanctioned by the state

• Cause: The growth of regulated economies and state authority in the 17th century

• Effect: Reinforced ideas of state-approved ownership, influencing early forms of economic governance

Iron Plow (1730)

• Cast-iron plow invented by Joseph Foljambe, more durable and efficient than wooden models

• Cause: Need for stronger farming tools during agricultural expansion

• Effect: Improved soil cultivation, reduced labor, and supported the Agricultural Revolution across Europe

Internal Tariff

• A tax on goods traded within a country

• Cause: Governments imposed taxes on domestic trade to raise revenue

• Event: Raised prices on essential goods and restricted internal trade

• Effect: Hurt local economies; when later removed (as in France under Jean-Baptiste Colbert), trade and consumer spending increased

Customs Barrier / External Tariff

• Taxes or restrictions placed on goods imported from other nations to protect domestic industries

• Cause: Nations following mercantilist policies wanted to maintain favorable trade balances

• Effect: Protected national markets, fostered self-sufficiency, and strengthened national industries

Putting-Out System / Cottage Industry

• A production system where merchants provided raw materials to rural families, who made goods in their homes for wages

• Cause: Rising demand for textiles before the rise of factories

• Event: Families spun, wove, and dyed fabric from home while merchants sold the finished goods

• Effect: Gave rise to proto-industrialization, early wage labor, and the growth of a money-based rural economy

Proto-Industrialization

• The early phase of industrialization when rural and small-scale workshops began producing goods for the market

• Cause: Expansion of the cottage industry and increasing consumer demand

• Effect: Created a bridge between agricultural labor and factory work, setting the stage for the Industrial Revolution

Steam Engine

• A machine that used steam power to drive mechanical work, key to industrialization

• Cause: The need for efficient power to run machinery and pump water from mines

• Event: Improved by James Watt (1769), who made it practical for manufacturing and transportation

• Effect: Powered factories, trains, and ships, fueling the Industrial and Transportation Revolutions

Spinning Jenny (1764)

• A multi-spindle spinning machine invented by James Hargreaves

• Cause: Need to increase thread production for textile manufacturing

• Event: Allowed one worker to spin multiple threads at once

• Effect: Greatly increased textile output and efficiency, advancing the Industrial Revolution

Water Frame (1769)

• A spinning machine powered by water, invented by Richard Arkwright

• Cause: Demand for stronger thread and more efficient production

• Event: Used waterpower to spin cotton fibers on a large scale

• Effect: Led to the creation of factories near rivers, transforming the textile industry

Spinning Mule (1779)

• A hybrid machine combining the spinning jenny and water frame, invented by Samuel Crompton

• Cause: Desire to produce stronger, finer thread for high-quality textiles

• Effect: Revolutionized cotton spinning and enabled large-scale, mechanized textile production

Bank of England (Founded 1694)

• The central bank of England, established to manage government debt and stabilize the economy

• Established by a royal charter from William III and Mary II

• Cause: Britain’s need to fund wars and rebuild its navy after conflicts with France

• Effect: Created financial stability, supported industrial expansion, and funded Britain’s rise as a world power

Commercial Revolution

• A period of major economic expansion in Europe driven by trade, banking, and colonial wealth

• Cause: European exploration, mercantilism, and the rise of market economies

• Event: Growth of charter companies, banks, insurance, and joint-stock ventures

• Effect: Transitioned Europe from feudal economies to capitalism, paving the way for the Industrial Revolution

Limited-liability corportation

• A business structure where investors are only responsible for losses up to their original investment, protecting personal assets from company debts

• Cause: The growth of market economies, property rights protections, and the need to encourage investment in large ventures during the Commercial and Industrial Revolutions

• Event: Adopted by financial institutions like the Bank of England, joint-stock companies, and insurance firms to pool capital for trade, infrastructure, and industry

• Effect: Made investing safer and more attractive, expanding access to capital and promoting entrepreneurship

Stadtholder

• The chief executive and military leader of the provinces in the Dutch Republic (16th–18th centuries)

• Often held by the House of Orange, though not always

• Cause: The Dutch needed a unifying military leader during the revolt against Spain

• Effect: The position often went to the House of Orange, creating tension between republican oligarchs and quasi-monarchical Orange power

Union of Utrecht (1579)

• A defensive alliance of northern Calvinist and Protestant Dutch provinces that united against Spanish Habsburg control

  • Mutual defense

  • Religious tolerance among signatories

  • Formal rejection of Philip II’s authority

• Effect: Became the foundation of the independent Dutch Republic (recognized in 1648 by the Peace of Westphalia)

Eighty Years’ War (1568–1648)

• The Dutch struggle for independence from Habsburg Spain.

• Key Phases/Events:

  • Iconoclastic Fury (1566)

  • Duke of Alva’s “Blood Council” or Council of Troubles”

    • Council of Blood executed Protestant rebels as a part of the Catholic Counter Reformation (1568)

  • Union of Utrecht (1579): created a Protestant alliance

  • Truce of 1609

• War resumes during Thirty Years’ War

• Effect:

  • Dutch independence formally recognized in 1648

  • Spain’s economic and political decline after losing control over the prosperous Dutch territory

  • Dutch Golden Age begins, fueled by global trade

  • Decline of Spanish power; rise of the Netherlands as a commercial and naval power

Oligarchy (in the Dutch Republic)

• Rule by wealthy merchant regents who controlled city councils and provincial estates

• Effect: Stable, commerce-focused government that encouraged trade, banking, toleration, and artistic patronage — but resisted the centralizing ambitions of the House of Orange

Urban Gentry (Dutch Republic)

• A class of wealthy merchants, shipowners, bankers, and professionals who dominated urban life

• Effect: Powered Dutch commercial success, global trade, and funded the arts, creating the cultural conditions of the Dutch Golden Age

Dutch East India Company (VOC) — Founded 1602

• The first major multinational corporation, with power to wage war, mint money, negotiate treaties, and establish colonies

• Key Locations: Indonesia, Ceylon, Cape Colony

• Effect:

  • Controlled Asian spice trade

  • Established Batavia (Jakarta) as colonial capital

  • Generated immense wealth, financing Dutch prosperity and artistic greatness

Joint-Stock Company (16th–17th c.)

• Investors buy shares, share profits/losses, and reduce risk

• Effect: Enabled large-scale exploration, global trade, and the rise of modern capitalism

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669)

• Dutch master renowned for psychological depth, drama, and use of chiaroscuro

• Key Works:

  • The Night Watch (1642)

  • The Jewish Bride

  • The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp

• Effect: Captured Dutch civic culture, bourgeois identity, and introspective spirituality

Johannes Vermeer (1632–1675)

• Painter of serene, meticulously detailed domestic interiors

• Key Works:

  • Girl with a Pearl Earring

  • The Milkmaid

  • View of Delft

• Effect: His art reflects the quiet wealth and moral order of Dutch middle-class life

Judith Leyster (1609–1660)

• Prominent female painter associated with the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke

• Key Works:

  • Self-Portrait (1630)

  • The Merry Drinker

• Effect: Demonstrates the unusual professional opportunities for women in the Dutch Republic

Jan Steen / “A Jan Steen Household” (1626–1679)

• Dutch genre painter known for lively, chaotic, humorous scenes

• Key Works:

  • The Feast of St. Nicholas

  • The Dancing Couple

• Effect: His depictions warn about moral disorder and overconsumerism in the Dutch Golden Age, influenced by Calvinist piety

  • “A Jan Steen Household” became a proverb for messy homes

Willem van de Velde the Younger (1633–1707)

• Marine painter famed for precise, dramatic portrayals of naval battles and seascapes.

• Key Works:

  • Battle of Texel

• Effect: His work celebrates Dutch naval power and maritime pride.

Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562–1621)

• Dutch composer bridging Renaissance and Baroque styles

• Known as the “Orpheus of Amsterdam.”

• Effect: Influenced the German organ tradition and showcased Dutch artistic achievement beyond painting

Benedict de Spinoza (1632–1677)

• Philosopher of rationalism and early Enlightenment thought

• Key Work: Ethics (published posthumously, 1677)

• Effect: Rejected traditional religious authority; advanced ideas about freedom, toleration, and scientific reasoning

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)

• Dutch scientist who improved microscopes and discovered bacteria, protozoa, sperm cells, and capillary flow

  • Known as the "Father of Microbiology" for his pioneering work with microscopes and discovery of microorganisms

• Effect: Founder of microbiology; exemplifies Dutch spirit of inquiry

Civic Humanism / Civic Virtue (Dutch context)

• The belief that citizens must contribute to the public good and participate in civic life.

• Effect: Strengthened republicanism, encouraged public works, and supported artistic patronage in the Dutch Golden Age

  • Bolstered intellectual and scientific advancement

Amsterdam during the Dutch Golden Age (1600–1700)

• Europe’s financial capital in the 1600s

  • Home to the Bank of Amsterdam (1609), Amsterdam Stock Exchange, and a vast merchant fleet

• Effect: Became a center of credit, trade, and cultural life, symbolizing Dutch prosperity

Dutch Shipbuilding / Fluyt Ships (late 1500s–1600s)

• The fluyt was a cheap-to-build, efficient cargo ship designed for commerce, not warfare

  • Narrow deck → reduced taxation

  • Wide hull → more cargo

• Effect: Allowed Dutch merchants to dominate global shipping with the largest merchant fleet in Europe

Louis XIII (r. 1610–1643)

• Definition: King of France who strengthened royal authority and reduced noble power

• Context: Early Bourbon monarch; inherited throne after assassination of Henry IV

• Policies/Events: Worked through Cardinal Richelieu to centralize state authority and curb Huguenot power

• Cause/Effect: Continued France’s transition toward absolutism

• Significance: His reign laid foundations for Louis XIV’s absolute monarchy

Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642)

• Definition: Chief minister to Louis XIII; architect of French absolutism

• Context: Served 1624–1642

• Policies:

  • Strengthened intendant system (royal officials supervising provinces)

  • Weakened Huguenots politically while maintaining limited religious toleration

  • Fought Catholic Habsburg Spain and Austria in the Thirty Years’ War (joined 1635) onn the side of the Protestants for political, not religious alliances

• Cause/Effect: Elevated royal power above all rival institutions; subordinated nobility

• Significance: Advanced raison d’état — “reason of state” — where state interest outweighed religion

Cardinal Mazarin (1602–1661)

• Definition: Successor to Richelieu; regent for young Louis XIV

• Context: Ruled during Louis XIV’s minority (1643–1661)

• Policies/Events: Continued centralization → triggered The Fronde (1648–1653), a series of noble and peasant revolts against royal authority

• Cause/Effect: Fronde’s failure convinced Louis XIV that strong monarchy was necessary

• Significance: Last major domestic resistance to French absolutism

Louis XIV “The Sun King” (r. 1643–1715)

• Definition: Model of European absolutism; centralized France and expanded royal authority

• Context: Reigned 72 years — longest in European history

• Policies/Events:

  • Built Versailles Palace to control the nobility.

  • Abolished Edict of Nantes (1685) → persecution of Huguenots

  • Engaged in multiple wars (Dutch War, War of Spanish Succession)

  • Used mercantilism under Colbert to fund army and palace

• Impact: France became cultural and political leader of Europe but entered debt and decline

• Quote: “L’état, c’est moi” (“I am the state”)

Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619–1683)

• Definition: Finance minister under Louis XIV; architect of mercantilism in France

• Context: Served 1665–1683

• Policies:

  • State control of economy, high tariffs, internal improvements, colonial expansion

  • Founded the Company of the East Indies, promoted luxury manufacturing

• Effect: Short-term prosperity, long-term strain due to war spending

• Significance: His system helped fund Louis XIV’s wars and exemplified the link between economics and absolutism

Bishop Jacques Bossuet (1627–1704)

• Definition: French bishop and political theorist who defended Divine Right of Kings

• Work: Politics Drawn from Holy Scripture

• Belief: Kings were chosen by God and accountable only to Him; rebellion was a sin

• Impact: Provided theological justification for absolutism