sociology paper 2 revision

Positivism

Sociological approach using scientific methods to uncover patterns and trends through objective, value-free, quantitative data.

Interpretivism

Focus on meanings and experiences through empathy, verstehen, rapport, and qualitative, subjective research.

Verstehen (Weber)

Understanding social behaviour by putting oneself in the shoes of the participant.

Empathy

Gaining emotional understanding of participants' experiences in interpretivist research.

Rapport

Trust and mutual understanding between researcher and participant, key in qualitative research.

Reflexivity

Awareness of how a researcher's background and biases affect research outcomes.

Researcher imposition

When a researcher's ideas or values influence the interpretation of data.

Quantitative data

Numerical data suitable for statistical analysis; preferred by positivists.

Qualitative data

Descriptive data such as interviews or observations; preferred by interpretivists.

Objectivity

Research should be free from personal bias; a key aim of positivist methods.

Value freedom

The idea that researchers should avoid letting their values affect their research.

Validity

The extent to which research measures what it claims to measure.

Reliability

The consistency and replicability of research findings.

Representativeness

The degree to which research findings reflect the wider population.

Generalisability

The ability to apply research findings to the wider population.

Factors influencing research topic

Researcher's values, funding, access, current events, and theoretical perspective.

Aims/Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a testable prediction; aims are broader goals of research.

Primary data

Data collected directly by the researcher (e.g. interviews, surveys).

Secondary data

Data collected by others (e.g. government statistics, documents).

Operationalisation

Defining and measuring abstract concepts (e.g. defining "social class" for a study).

Pilot study

A small-scale trial run of research to identify issues before the full study.

Data collection

The process of gathering information from participants or sources.

Respondent validation

Checking data interpretation with participants to improve validity.

Longitudinal studies

Studies conducted over a long period to identify changes over time.

Interpretation of data

Making sense of data by analysing patterns, themes, and meanings.

Sociology and social policy

Sociological research can influence policy decisions (e.g. Townsend's work on poverty).

Sampling

Selecting participants to represent the population.

Random sample

Everyone has an equal chance of being selected; high representativeness.

Systematic sample

Selecting every nth person from a list.

Stratified sample

Population divided into groups (e.g. age, gender) and sampled proportionally.

Snowball sample

Existing participants recruit others; useful for hidden populations.

Volunteer sample

Participants choose to take part; low representativeness.

Opportunity sample

Based on convenience and availability; quick but biased.

Purposive sample

Participants chosen for specific characteristics relevant to research.

Quota sample

Researcher sets quotas for types of people (e.g. 50% women); not random.

Access

Gaining entry to a research setting or participant group.

Gatekeeping

Individuals or organisations control access to research settings or subjects.

Ethics in research

Informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding harm, right to withdraw.

Questionnaires

Standardised questions; high reliability, low validity.

Structured interviews

Pre-set questions in fixed order; reliable but less depth.

Statistical data

Includes official (e.g. census) and non-official (e.g. company reports) stats; useful for trends.

Content analysis

Analysing media/texts for patterns and meanings.

Participant observation

Researcher joins the group being studied; can be covert or overt.

Non-participant observation

Researcher observes without involvement.

Covert observation

Participants are unaware of being studied; ethical issues but valid.

Overt observation

Participants know they're being studied; ethical but less valid.

Unstructured interviews

Open-ended, flexible interviews; high validity, low reliability.

Semi-structured interviews

Mix of open and closed questions; balanced depth and comparability.

Ethnography

In-depth, immersive study of a group's culture and practices.

Triangulation

Using multiple methods to cross-check data.

Methodological pluralism

Combining qualitative and quantitative methods for fuller understanding.

Income inequality

ACs have wide income gaps; top 10% hold majority of wealth.

Wealth inequality

Even greater than income inequality; includes assets like property.

Poverty

1 in 5 children in the UK live in poverty; LIDCs experience absolute poverty.

Life chances

Access to education, healthcare, and employment is unequally distributed.

Work and employment

Women, ethnic minorities, and working-class groups face disadvantages.

Social mobility

Movement between classes is limited, especially in the UK and USA.

Social class inequality

Affects income, education, housing; linked to capitalism (Marx).

Gender inequality

Women earn less, do more unpaid work; linked to patriarchy (Feminism).

Ethnic inequality

Discrimination in employment, education, policing (e.g. Macpherson Report).

Age inequality

Young people face unemployment, older people face ageism.

Functionalism (Parsons, Davis & Moore)

Inequality is necessary for meritocracy and role allocation.

Marxism (Marx, Althusser)

Inequality is due to class conflict and capitalist exploitation.

Weberian theory (Weber, Barron & Norris)

Inequality is based on class, status and party; dual labour market.

Feminism (Oakley, Walby)

Patriarchy causes gendered inequality; intersectionality matters.

New Right (Murray)

Inequality results from individual failings; underclass lacks work ethic.

Postmodernism (Lyotard, Pakulski & Waters)

Inequality is more fragmented; class less relevant, identity more important.

Functionalism - Social Class

Stratification ensures best people fill best jobs.

Marxism - Social Class

Capitalist class exploits workers; class struggle.

Weberian - Social Class

Class, status, and party all contribute to inequality.

Feminism - Social Class

Women face class and gender-based disadvantages (dual systems theory).

New Right - Social Class

Underclass perpetuates dependency culture.

Functionalism - Gender

Gender roles are functional for social stability.

Marxism - Gender

Women reproduce labour force; reserve army of labour.

Weberian - Gender

Women have less status and market situation.

Feminism - Gender

Patriarchy creates and sustains female subordination.

New Right - Gender

Traditional gender roles are beneficial for the family and society.

Functionalism - Ethnicity

Assimilation helps social cohesion.

Marxism - Ethnicity

Ethnic minorities are scapegoated to divide working class (Hall et al.).

Weberian - Ethnicity

Racism limits market position and life chances.

Feminism - Ethnicity

Double/triple burden; Black feminism highlights intersectionality.

New Right - Ethnicity

Cultural differences cause lack of integration.

Functionalism - Age

Age groups perform different roles for social cohesion.

Marxism - Age

Youth and elderly are economically marginalised.

Weberian - Age

Age groups have different status and market situations.

Feminism - Age

Older women are doubly marginalised; appearance-based discrimination.

New Right - Age

Elderly should plan for retirement; support self-reliance.

Postmodernism - Inequality

Identities are more fluid; class, gender, ethnicity less relevant than consumption and lifestyle.

Weber (Verstehen)

Understanding social behaviour by putting oneself in the participant's shoes through empathetic insight.

Parsons (Functionalism)

Inequality is necessary for meritocracy and role allocation in society.

Davis & Moore (Functionalism)

Social stratification ensures the most important roles are filled by the most qualified.

Marx (Marxism)

Inequality arises from class conflict and capitalist exploitation.

Althusser (Marxism)

Capitalism maintains inequality through ideological state apparatuses.

Barron & Norris (Weberian)

Inequality stems from class, status, and party, including a dual labour market.

Oakley (Feminism)

Patriarchy causes gender inequality and women's subordination.

Walby (Feminism)

Patriarchy is a system of social structures maintaining gender inequality.

Murray (New Right)

Inequality results from individual failings; the underclass lacks work ethic.

Lyotard (Postmodernism)

Inequality is fragmented; traditional class less relevant, identity more fluid.

Pakulski & Waters (Postmodernism)

Social identities are fragmented, making class less central to inequality.

Hall et al. (Marxism on ethnicity)

Ethnic minorities are scapegoated to divide the working class.