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British Psychological Society (BPS) code of ethics
a series of guidelines that researchers need to consider when undertaking psychological research
Main ethical guidelines
Deception
Right to withdraw
Informed consent
Privacy and confidentiality
Protection from harm
DRIPP
deception
When information is deliberately withheld from participants or they are knowingly misled.
why is deception unethical if broken
It prevents participants from giving fully informed consent which means that they might be taking part in research that goes against their views or beliefs.
how to deal with deception if broken
At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research. At this point the participant should be given the right to withdraw the publication of their results. The contact details of the experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.
right to withdraw
Participants have the right to withdraw (remove themselves or their data from the study) at any stage. This includes after the research has been conducted, in which case the researcher must destroy any data or information collected.
why is right to withdraw unethical if broken
Participants who are not given the right to withdraw may feel unnecessary or undue stress and are therefore not protected from harm.
how to deal with right to withdraw if broken
At the end of the study the participants should be fully debriefed and told the true aim and nature of the research. At this point the participant should be given the right to withdraw the publication of their results. The contact details of the experimenter should be given if participants have any further questions or queries.
informed consent
When someone consents to participate in research, their consent must be fully informed which means the aims of the research should be made clear before they agree to participate.
why is informed consent unethical if broken
Lack of informed consent may mean that the participant is taking part in research that goes against their wishes or beliefs. It is possible that the participant may have felt obliged to take part or even coerced into it, especially if they are not fully informed.
how to deal with informed consent if broken
Presumptive consent: involves taking a random sample of the population and introducing them to the research, including any deception which may result. If they agree to take part in the research it can be presumed that other future participants would do the same so the consent is generalised. Prior general consent: involves participants agreeing to take part beforehand in numerous psychological investigations, which may or may not involve deception. This, in effect, means that they will have given consent for being deceived. Retrospective consent: involves participants giving consent for their participation after already taking part, for instance, if they were not aware that they were the subject of an investigation. Children as participants: involves gaining the consent of the parent(s) in writing for children under the age of 16 to participate in any psychological research.
privacy
Privacy is the right of individuals to decide how information about them will be communicated to others
why is privacy unethical if broken
A skilled researcher may obtain more information from a participant than they wish to give which could be an invasion of privacy and the participant may later feel ashamed or embarrassed.
how to deal with privacy if broken
The participant should be provided with fully informed consent and the right to withdraw at any stage. Furthermore, the researcher should explain to participants the way(s) in which their information will be protected and kept confidential, e.g. no names will be published in the final report and any written information or video information will be destroyed.
confidentiality
Confidentiality is where a participant’s personal information is protected by law under the Data Protection Act both during and after the experiment.
why is confidentiality unethical if broken
A person’s details or data may be used by other parties against the participant’s wishes.
how to deal with confidentiality if broken
Participants are provide with a fake name, number or initials to protect their identity and assure anonymity. They should not be identifiable by any person, institution or organisation.
protection from harm
Psychologists have the responsibility to protect their participants from physical or psychological harm, including stress. The risk of harm must be no greater than that which they are exposed to in everyday life.
why is protection from harm unethical if broken
Participants should leave the research in the same state as they entered it. If they are harmed, they may suffer from long‐term effects that could impact their lives in future.
how to deal with protection from harm if broken
The researcher should remind participants of their right to withdraw throughout and after the research. The researcher should terminate the experiment if the level of psychological or physical harm is higher than expected. Participants should be debriefed at the end of the experiment and in some instances they may be referred to counselling.
peer review
an independent assessment process that takes place before a research study is published and is undertaken by other experts in the same field of psychologyAll psychologists must be prepared for their work to be scrutinised in this way which is conducted anonymously. There are several aims of the peer review process:
To provide recommendations about whether the research should be published in the public domain or not, or whether it needs revision.
To check the validity of the research to ensure it is of a high quality.
To assess the appropriateness of the procedure and methodology.
To judge the significance of the research in the wider context of human behaviour.
To assess the work for originality and ensure that other relevant research is sufficiently detailed.
To inform allocation of future research funding to worthy investigative processes.
strength of peer review
prevents substandard research from entering the mainstream
less opportunity for plagiarised work or duplications of research to be published - so journals are trusted
limitation of peer review
often anonymous so may use the chance to criticise rivals in their psychology field - tends to be limited research funds so very competitive - unfair reflection
hard to find a suitable peer - publication bias
implications
the ability to interpret findings in terms their value, strengths and weaknesses for achieving success.
Example of implications for the economy in psychopathology
treating OCD
Soomro et al (2008) conducted a review of research examining the effectiveness of SSRIs and found that they were significantly more effective than placebos in the treatment of OCD, across 17 different trials, which supports the use of biological treatments for OCD
The development of effective treatments for mental health disorders, such as obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), ill firstly restore quality of life for the sufferer. This will then impact on their ability to work, meaning less time off work due to ill health and/or less reliance on Government funded incapacity benefit. Likewise, the NHS will save money if treatments are successful as fewer incidents of relapse, requiring medical attention, are likely to occur
Example of implications for the economy in memory
factors affecting the accuracy of EWT
Fisher et al. (1989) examined the effectiveness of the cognitive interview in real police interviews. Sixteen experienced detectives recorded a selection of their interviews, using a standard interviewing technique. The detectives were then divided into two groups. One group was trained to use the cognitive interview, while the other group (control) continued using the standard interview. After training, their subsequent interviews were recorded and analysed. The trained detectives elicited 46% more information after their cognitive interview training, in comparison to the control group. Where it was possible to confirm the information, over 90% of it was found to be accurate.
The development of the cognitive interview has been successful in improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony recall. This means that there is a greater chance of the police prosecuting the right criminal from the offset. These techniques can reduce wasted money on wrongful arrests, questioning and court hearings, saving the criminal justice system money.
Example of implications for the economy in attachment
role of the father
Belsky et al. (2009) found that males who reported higher levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father–infant attachment, which suggests that males can form secure attachments with their children, although the strength of the attachment depends on the father and mother relationship.
Research shows that both mothers and fathers are equally capable of childrearing to enable healthy developmental outcomes for the infants. This allows mothers to return to work, free of guilt, and contribute to the economy through the work force. Modern parenting styles can, therefore, maximise the annual household income enabling both parents to contribute most effectively to the economy.