unit 7 and 11 psych

Iconic Memory

Brief sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting for a fraction of a second after the stimulus is gone

Echoic Memory

Brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli, persisting for a few seconds even if attention is diverted

Encoding

The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing to mind stored information from memory

Parallel Processing

The brain's ability to simultaneously process multiple aspects of a problem or task

Sensory Memory

The immediate and very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-term Memory

The temporary storage of recent events and information, akin to a mental notepad

Long-term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, holding knowledge, skills, and experiences

Working Memory

The newer understanding of short-term memory that involves the active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information

Explicit Memory

The conscious and intentional recollection of factual information and personal experiences

Effortful Processing

The encoding of information that requires conscious attention and effortful work

Automatic Processing

The unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency

Implicit Memory

The retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Chunking

The organization of information into familiar, manageable units, often used to aid in memory

Mnemonics

Memory aids, including techniques that use vivid imagery or organizational devices

Spacing Effect

The phenomenon where learning is more effective when spread out over time, as opposed to being concentrated in a single session

Testing Effect

The enhanced retention of information that occurs when learners are required to retrieve the information through testing

Shallow Processing

The encoding of information based on its surface-level characteristics, such as the sound or appearance of words

Deep Processing

The encoding of information based on its meaning and deeper level of understanding

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Flashbulb Memory

A clear and vivid long-term memory of an emotionally significant event or moment

Long Term Potentiation

The persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory

Recall

The retrieval of information learned earlier, often with the absence of any cues or prompts

Recognition

The identification of previously learned items, often with the aid of cues or prompts

Relearning

The process of learning something that was previously learned, typically with less effort and in a shorter time

Priming

The activation of particular associations in memory, often triggered by specific cues or contexts

Mood Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a series more effectively than the middle items

Anterograde Amnesia

The inability to form new memories following an event, often due to brain injury or trauma

Retrograde Amnesia

The inability to retrieve past memories, often due to brain injury or trauma

Proactive Interference

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive Interference

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

Repression

The unconscious exclusion of distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings from conscious awareness

Misinformation Effect

The incorporation of misleading information into one's memory of an event

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember the source of a memory, often leading to the belief that the memory is original

Deja Vu

The eerie sense of having experienced a situation or event before, often accompanied by a strong feeling of familiarity

Cognition

The mental processes involved in perception, thinking, learning, and memory

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a particular category

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Convergent Thinking

The ability to provide a single correct answer to a problem

Divergent Thinking

The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem, often involving thinking outside the box

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem

Heuristic

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently

Insight

A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses

Mental Set

The tendency to approach a problem in a particular way that has been successful in the past

Intuition

An effortless, immediate, and automatic feeling or thought, often without conscious reasoning

Representativeness Heuristic

The tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a particular prototype

Availability Heuristic

The tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event based on its availability in memory

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimating the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even after the basis for those beliefs has been discredited

Framing

The way an issue or question is presented, which can significantly influence judgments and decisions

Language

A system of communication using sounds, symbols, and gestures that is understood by people

Phoneme

The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language

Morpheme

The smallest unit in a language that carries meaning, including words or parts of words

Grammar

A system of rules in a language that enables communication and understanding

Babbling Stage

The stage of speech development in which an infant utters various sounds unrelated to the household language

One-word Stage

The stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words

Two-Word Stage

The stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

Telegraphic Speech

The early stage of speech in which a child speaks like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs

Aphasia

An impairment of language, usually caused by damage to the brain's language centers

Broca's Area

The brain region that controls language expression, located in the frontal lobe and responsible for directing the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

The brain region involved in language comprehension and expression, typically located in the left temporal lobe

Linguistic Determinism

The hypothesis that language shapes and influences the way we think about and perceive the world

Intelligence

The mental capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations

Intelligence Test

A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes, often by comparing them to others using numerical scores

General Intelligence

The underlying mental ability that influences various cognitive tasks and is measured through different tests

Factor Analysis

A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items on a test, revealing different dimensions of performance

Savant Syndrome

A condition in which a person with limited mental ability demonstrates exceptional skills in a specific area

Grit

The passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively

Mental Age

A measure of an individual's level of mental development, typically compared to the average performance for a given age

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A numerical representation of an individual's intelligence, calculated as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

Achievement Test

An assessment of what a person has learned or accomplished

Aptitude Test

An assessment of a person's potential for future learning and performance

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

A widely used intelligence test that includes verbal and performance subtests

Standardization

The process of defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores through comparison with a representative sample

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes, with most scores falling near the average

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time and across different circumstances

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is intended to measure or predict

Content Validity

The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Predictive Validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict

Cohort

A group of individuals who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined time period

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tend to increase with age

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to reason and think abstractly, which tends to decrease during late adulthood

Intellectual Disability

A condition of limited mental ability, typically indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below

Down Syndrome

A condition of mild to severe intellectual disability associated with physical disorders, caused by an extra copy of Chromosome 21

Heritability

The extent to which differences in intelligence within a group can be attributed to genetic factors

Stereotype Threat

The concern or anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group, which can impair performance

Charles Spearman

A psychologist who proposed the concept of general intelligence and the 'g' factor underlying intelligent behavior

L.L. Thurstone

A psychologist who identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities through factor analysis

Howard Gardner

A psychologist who views intelligence as comprising multiple abilities that come in different packages

Robert Sternberg

A psychologist who proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence, encompassing analytical, creative, and practical intelligence

Francis Galton

A pioneer in the study of human intelligence, who believed that certain physical and mental traits made a person smarter

Alfred Binet

A psychologist who devised the first intelligence test, the Binet-Simon test, to identify children in need of special education

Lowell's Terman

A psychologist known for his work on the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, which became the standard intelligence test in the United States

David Wechsler

A psychologist who created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), a widely used intelligence test

Carol Dweck

A psychologist who proposed the growth mindset, suggesting that intelligence can be developed and improved through effort and learning