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Iconic Memory
Brief sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting for a fraction of a second after the stimulus is gone
Echoic Memory
Brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli, persisting for a few seconds even if attention is diverted
Encoding
The process of transforming sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory
Storage
The retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
The process of accessing and bringing to mind stored information from memory
Parallel Processing
The brain's ability to simultaneously process multiple aspects of a problem or task
Sensory Memory
The immediate and very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Short-term Memory
The temporary storage of recent events and information, akin to a mental notepad
Long-term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, holding knowledge, skills, and experiences
Working Memory
The newer understanding of short-term memory that involves the active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information
Explicit Memory
The conscious and intentional recollection of factual information and personal experiences
Effortful Processing
The encoding of information that requires conscious attention and effortful work
Automatic Processing
The unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency
Implicit Memory
The retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
Chunking
The organization of information into familiar, manageable units, often used to aid in memory
Mnemonics
Memory aids, including techniques that use vivid imagery or organizational devices
Spacing Effect
The phenomenon where learning is more effective when spread out over time, as opposed to being concentrated in a single session
Testing Effect
The enhanced retention of information that occurs when learners are required to retrieve the information through testing
Shallow Processing
The encoding of information based on its surface-level characteristics, such as the sound or appearance of words
Deep Processing
The encoding of information based on its meaning and deeper level of understanding
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Flashbulb Memory
A clear and vivid long-term memory of an emotionally significant event or moment
Long Term Potentiation
The persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity, believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory
Recall
The retrieval of information learned earlier, often with the absence of any cues or prompts
Recognition
The identification of previously learned items, often with the aid of cues or prompts
Relearning
The process of learning something that was previously learned, typically with less effort and in a shorter time
Priming
The activation of particular associations in memory, often triggered by specific cues or contexts
Mood Congruent Memory
The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood
Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a series more effectively than the middle items
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to form new memories following an event, often due to brain injury or trauma
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to retrieve past memories, often due to brain injury or trauma
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Repression
The unconscious exclusion of distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings from conscious awareness
Misinformation Effect
The incorporation of misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
The inability to remember the source of a memory, often leading to the belief that the memory is original
Deja Vu
The eerie sense of having experienced a situation or event before, often accompanied by a strong feeling of familiarity
Cognition
The mental processes involved in perception, thinking, learning, and memory
Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Prototype
A mental image or best example of a particular category
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Convergent Thinking
The ability to provide a single correct answer to a problem
Divergent Thinking
The ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem, often involving thinking outside the box
Algorithm
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem
Heuristic
A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently
Insight
A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses
Mental Set
The tendency to approach a problem in a particular way that has been successful in the past
Intuition
An effortless, immediate, and automatic feeling or thought, often without conscious reasoning
Representativeness Heuristic
The tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a particular prototype
Availability Heuristic
The tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event based on its availability in memory
Overconfidence
The tendency to be more confident than correct, overestimating the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments
Belief Perseverance
The tendency to cling to one's initial beliefs even after the basis for those beliefs has been discredited
Framing
The way an issue or question is presented, which can significantly influence judgments and decisions
Language
A system of communication using sounds, symbols, and gestures that is understood by people
Phoneme
The smallest distinctive sound unit in a language
Morpheme
The smallest unit in a language that carries meaning, including words or parts of words
Grammar
A system of rules in a language that enables communication and understanding
Babbling Stage
The stage of speech development in which an infant utters various sounds unrelated to the household language
One-word Stage
The stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in single words
Two-Word Stage
The stage of speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements
Telegraphic Speech
The early stage of speech in which a child speaks like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs
Aphasia
An impairment of language, usually caused by damage to the brain's language centers
Broca's Area
The brain region that controls language expression, located in the frontal lobe and responsible for directing the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's Area
The brain region involved in language comprehension and expression, typically located in the left temporal lobe
Linguistic Determinism
The hypothesis that language shapes and influences the way we think about and perceive the world
Intelligence
The mental capacity to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations
Intelligence Test
A method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes, often by comparing them to others using numerical scores
General Intelligence
The underlying mental ability that influences various cognitive tasks and is measured through different tests
Factor Analysis
A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items on a test, revealing different dimensions of performance
Savant Syndrome
A condition in which a person with limited mental ability demonstrates exceptional skills in a specific area
Grit
The passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively
Mental Age
A measure of an individual's level of mental development, typically compared to the average performance for a given age
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
A numerical representation of an individual's intelligence, calculated as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100
Achievement Test
An assessment of what a person has learned or accomplished
Aptitude Test
An assessment of a person's potential for future learning and performance
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
A widely used intelligence test that includes verbal and performance subtests
Standardization
The process of defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores through comparison with a representative sample
Normal Curve
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes, with most scores falling near the average
Reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent results over time and across different circumstances
Validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is intended to measure or predict
Content Validity
The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
Predictive Validity
The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict
Cohort
A group of individuals who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined time period
Crystallized Intelligence
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which tend to increase with age
Fluid Intelligence
The ability to reason and think abstractly, which tends to decrease during late adulthood
Intellectual Disability
A condition of limited mental ability, typically indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below
Down Syndrome
A condition of mild to severe intellectual disability associated with physical disorders, caused by an extra copy of Chromosome 21
Heritability
The extent to which differences in intelligence within a group can be attributed to genetic factors
Stereotype Threat
The concern or anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social group, which can impair performance
Charles Spearman
A psychologist who proposed the concept of general intelligence and the 'g' factor underlying intelligent behavior
L.L. Thurstone
A psychologist who identified seven clusters of primary mental abilities through factor analysis
Howard Gardner
A psychologist who views intelligence as comprising multiple abilities that come in different packages
Robert Sternberg
A psychologist who proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence, encompassing analytical, creative, and practical intelligence
Francis Galton
A pioneer in the study of human intelligence, who believed that certain physical and mental traits made a person smarter
Alfred Binet
A psychologist who devised the first intelligence test, the Binet-Simon test, to identify children in need of special education
Lowell's Terman
A psychologist known for his work on the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, which became the standard intelligence test in the United States
David Wechsler
A psychologist who created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), a widely used intelligence test
Carol Dweck
A psychologist who proposed the growth mindset, suggesting that intelligence can be developed and improved through effort and learning
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