Unit 4 Learning

A lasting change in behavior or mental processes as the result of an experience

Learning

Can behavior be observed?

Yes

Are mental processes or behavior more difficult to study?

Mental processes

Unlearned behaviors due to evolutionary programming that are found in almost all members of a species

Instincts

Examples of instincts:

Bears hibernate, geese migrate, and salmon swim upstream to spawn

Learning represents a ______ over instinctive behavior

Significant evolutionary advance

Learning enables humans to:

Acquire new knowledge that can be transferred from one generation to another

Profession of Ivan Pavlov:

Russian (and later Soviet) physiologist

What was Ivan Pavlov awarded?

Nobel Prize

When was Ivan Pavlov awarded the Novel Prize?

1904

Ivan Pavlov was awarded the Nobel Prize for:

His research on the digestive system of dogs

While conducting experiments, Pavlov noticed that:

His dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths

How much time did Pavlov dedicate to studying the principles of classical conditioning?

3 decades

How many carefully designed experiments did Pavlov dedicate to studying the principles of classical conditioning?

532

The learning processes that Pavlov discovered are called:

Classical conditioning

Why are the learning processes that Pavlov discovered called classical conditioning?

They were the first to be extensively studied in psychology

5 components of classical conditioning:

Unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response

UCS stands for:

Unconditioned stimulus

A natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning

Unconditioned stimulus

Pavlov used what as the unconditioned stimulus?

Food

Why did Pavlov use food as the unconditioned stimulus?

It produced a naturally occurring salivation reflex

The word "conditioned" means:

Learnt

An unlearned response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus

Unconditioned response

UCR stands for:

Unconditioned response

In Pavlov's experiments, ______ was the unconditioned response

Salivation

NS stands for:

Neutral stimulus

Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning

Neutral stimulus

In Pavlov's experiments ______ was originally a neutral stimulus

A ringing bell

CS stands for:

Conditioned stimulus

Relationship between conditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus:

Conditioned stimulus was originally neutral stimulus

When does the neutral stimulus become the conditioned stimulus?

When systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Why does neutral stimulus become the conditioned stimulus when systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus?

It gains the power to cause a response

In Pavlov's experiments, ______ became a conditioned stimulus

The ringing bell

When did the ringing bell become a conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s experiments?

When it began to produce the same salivating response that the food once produced

CR stands for:

Conditioned response

A learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus

Conditioned response

The process by which a conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response

Acquisition

What did Pavlov do in his experiments?

Paired ringing bell with food. Originally a neutral stimulus, the ringing bell became a conditioned stimulus when the dog reacted with a conditioned response by salivating. The dog thus formed a new, learned association between a ringing bell and the food

What was the dog’s salivation in Pavlov’s experiments?

Both unconditioned response and conditioned response

Classical conditioning is most efficient when:

The conditioned stimulus immediately precedes the unconditioned stimulus

Every time someone flushes a toilet in a health club locker room, the nearby shower becomes hot. The sudden stream of hot water causes the person taking a nearby shower to jump back. Over time, the person hears the flush and then automatically jumps back before the water temperature changes.

What is the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response?

Hot water, jumping back, toilet flush, toilet flush, jumping back

The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus

Extinction

Example of extinction in Pavlov’s experiments:

He presented the ringing bell without the food. As a result, the ringing bell gradually lost its power to elicit the conditioned response of salivation

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay

Spontaneous recovery

Example of spontaneous recovery in Pavlov’s experiments:

Pavlov discovered that after a period of time, his dogs began salivating when they heard the sound of the bell.

In Pavlov’s experiments, during spontaneous recovery, how was the conditioned response different from the conditioned response before extinction?

Reappeared at lower intensity

Spontaneous recovery shows:

How difficult it can be to eliminate a conditioned response

What did Philip Zimbardo say about extinction?

Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response, not eliminate it. What actually seems to be happening during extinction is the learning of a competing response not to respond to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus generalization occurs when:

Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response

For stimulus generalization, was the new stimulus paired with the unconditioned stimulus?

No

Example of stimulus generalization:

A young child learns that forks are tableware and then demonstrates stimulus generalization when she correctly calls spoons and knives tableware

Is stimulus generalization limited to young children?

No

Example of stimulus generalization affecting not just young children:

Kerry eats a bucket of spicy chicken at a fast food restaurant and within an hour feels nauseous. Now just thinking about eating fast food makes him feel nauseous. Kerry demonstrates stimulus generalization when he tells all his friends that he will never eat fast food again.

The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli

Stimulus discrimination

Example of stimulus discrimination:

Students have learned different responses to the sound of bells in classrooms, cell phones, and front doors

Higher-order conditioning is also called:

Second-order conditioning

Higher-order conditioning occurs when:

A conditioned stimulus from one learning trial is paired with a new unconditioned stimulus

What happens to the new unconditioned stimulus in higher-order conditioning?

Becomes a new conditioned stimulus

The new conditioned stimulus in higher-order conditioning is capable of:

Eliciting the conditioned response

Has the new conditioned stimulus been paired with the unconditioned stimulus in higher-order conditioning?

No

Example of higher-order conditioning:

Pavlov classically conditioned a dog to salivate to the sound of a ticking metronome. He then paired the ticking metronome with a black square. After several pairings of the ticking metronome and the black square, the black square produced salivation even though it had never been directly paired with food

A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food:

Taste aversion

Example of taste aversion:

You eat a pizza with a particularly spicy topping and then become ill with the flu. You then develop a dislike for the spicy topping and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.

Suppose you eat a pizza with a particularly spicy topping and then become ill with the flu. You then develop a dislike for the spicy topping and feel nauseated whenever you smell it.

What is the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response?

Flu sickness, nausea, spicy pizza topping, nausea

Do anecdotal examples demonstrate scientific cause-and-effect relationship?

No

Describe John Garcia’s experiments to demonstrate taste aversions in rats:

He first allowed rats to drink saccharin-flavored water. A few hours later, he injected the rats with a drug that produced gastrointestinal distress. After recovering from the illness, the rats refused to drink the flavored water. Garcia concluded that the rats developed a taste aversion to the saccharin-flavored water.

Garcia's experiments challenged ___ basic principles of classical conditioning

2

How Garcia’s experiments challenge 2 basic principles of classical conditioning?

The conditioning only required a single pairing, and instead of being separated by a few seconds, Garcia separated the two stimuli by several hours

Garcia's research demonstrated that:

There are important biological constraints on conditioning

Classical conditioning focuses on:

Existing reflexive behaviors that are automatically elicited by a specific stimulus

How is learning different from classical conditioning?

Involves new behaviors or voluntary actions
that classical conditioning cannot explain

Edward L. Thorndike was fascinated by:

Animal behavior

First systematic investigations of animal learning

Edward L. Thorndike’s studies of baby chicks and cats

Thorndike focused on how:

Voluntary behaviors are influenced by their consequences

In his famous law of effect, Thorndike postulated that:

Responses that lead to satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated, while responses followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated

Profession of B.F. Skinner:

Behaviorist

Skinner believed that:

Psychologists should focus on observable behavior that could be objectively measured and verified

Skinner formulated the principles of:

Operant conditioning

Skinner defined the term "operant" as:

Any "active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences."

A learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response

Operant conditioning

Operant vs classical conditioning:

Behavior controlled by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response vs stimuli that precede a response

Reinforcement occurs when:

A stimulus follows an active behavior or response

In reinforcement, the stimulus following a behavior or response is the:

Reinforcer

Function of reinforcer:

Increases the probability that the behavior or
response will be repeated

A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus

Positive reinforcement

Does ‘positive’ in positive reinforcement mean ‘good’ or ‘desirable’?

No

What does ‘positive’ mean in positive reinforcement?

Addition of a stimulus

Example of positive reinforcement:

You make a special effort to help customers find the electronic products that will work best for them (the operant). Your boss gives you a raise to reward your hard work (the reinforcing stimulus)

A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an adverse stimulus

Negative reinforcement

Does ‘negative’ in negative reinforcement mean ‘bad’ or ‘undesirable’?

No

What does ‘negative’ mean in negative reinforcement?

The subtraction or removal of a stimulus

Negative reinforcement typically enables you to:

Either escape an existing aversive stimulus or avoid an aversive stimulus before it occurs

Example of negative reinforcement:

You give your little brother a candy bar (the operant) to prevent him from crying (the aversive stimulus)

The Premack Principle was named after:

David Premack

Profession of David Premack:

Psychologist

The Premack principle states that:

The opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity

Example of Premack principle:

You enjoy eating ice cream for dessert far more than eating vegetables. Knowing this, your mother ties the less-desired activity (eating vegetables) to your preferred activity (eating ice cream).

Types of reinforcers:

Primary, secondary, token economy

A reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing for a given species

Primary reinforcer

Examples of primary reinforcers:

Food, water, shelter, and sexual contact