SDS 251R Final Exam Cards

Social Science

things that may not be directly observable

Natural Science

things that are observable within the natural world

Confounding Variable

anything we are trying to anticipate that may impact our research

Theories:

what we think has happened, or happening, to explain behavior and patterns

Grand Theories

grand theories are more overarching theoretical assumptions about a social issue or idea

Interpretivism

social researchers to interpret the meanings of people's behaviours (from the point of view of the actor - people in their own social world)

Components of a theory are:

Connect Variables - if x happens then y happens

Deterministic - variables go together in a specific way

Probalistic - variables usually go together but may vary

What does interpretivism involve?

Interpretivism involves immersion into the lives of the people being studied, can be conducted through long interviews

Nomothetic

generalizability, cause/effect, uses quantitative methods, follows three criteria: correlation, time order, non-spuriousness (confounding variables)

Idiographic

involves a rich description of a person or group and seek to explain the particular. Typically qualitative, not meant to apply to persons or groups who were not part of the study.

Random assignment

participants are placed in the experimental or control group using a random method.

Validity

we are measuring what we intended to measure

Cross Sectional Design

Data collected at the same point in time but from different groups of peope

Longitudinal Design

Gathering data from the same group of people over an extended period of time

Panel study

the same people, households, organizations, etc. Are studied at different times

Cohort study:

people sharing the same experience are studied at different times, but different people may be studied at each time

Pre-test:

measurement of the dependent variable before the experimental manipulation

Threats to external validity in experiments:

History effects: the findings may not apply to other time periods, either in the past or in the future

Effect of pretesting: the findings may not apply to people who were not pretested, and few people in society are pre-tested

Reactive effects of experimental arrangements: the findings may be invalid because they were caused by subjects behaving atypically because they were in an experimental situation

Replicability

Methods were chosen appropriately so that others can replicate the study and find similar results

Lab Experiment

Greater control over environment is an asset, Easier to assign participants randomly to conditions

Quasi-experiments

Differ from true experiments in that internal validity is harder to establish

Case Study Design

Case studies have other strengths—they provide in-depth descriptions of the characteristics of a particular case that cannot be achieved using other methods

Informed Consent

is free and ongoing. Is necessary for the researchers and participants to act as collaborators. Participants must be advised of the risks and potential benefits of the research.

Reactive Effects

(participants know they are being observed for specific purposes)

Random response technique

useful for controversial/sensitive topics. Works on probabilities. Flip coin

All Canadian research requires REB approval

Must be obtained before people are approached to be participants

Research may NOT begin until researcher has obtained full ethics clearance from institution.

REBs can approve, require modifications, or reject a study

There is an appeal process for rejected studies

Vignette questions

presenting people with one or more scenarios and asking how they would respond.

Anchor the choices in a realistic situation.

Inter-observer consistency

rating behaviours the same between observers

Face validity

established if, at first glance, the measure appears to be valid

Concurrent validity

we are measuring what is intended and can observe this by having two or more reference points, identified at the same rate

Construct validity

established if the concepts relate to each other in a way that is consistent with the researchers theory. Confirmed by seeing that the results match what would be predicted given the theory.

Convergent Validity

established if a measure of a concept correlates with a second measure of the concept that uses a different measurement technique.

Observation Schedule

A clear statement of the research problem

Specifies who is to be observed and which behavors are to be recorded

Categories for recording behavior must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive

Classification scheme must be clear and easy to use.

Observing Behavior

Recording of incidents: wait until there is a behavior of interest

Time period: processes are observed and recorded at a designated period of time

Time sampling: observe the interactions

Participant observation

Qualitative method

Immersion in a particular setting for an extended period of time

To determine meanings that people give to their environment and their behaviour

Non- participant or "unobtrusive observation"

Observer does not take part in the activities of the observed group

Observed group may or may not know that it is being observed

Process may be structured or unstructured

Unstructured Observation

No rules for observing or recording the observations

Observer attempts to gather as much detail as possible make thorough notes, and develop a narrative account of the behaviour at a later time

Validity

Measurement validity can be an issue

The structured observation must be administered properly

The researcher should try to determine whether there are any reactive effects

People often behave differently because they know they are being observed

Some research suggests this lessens as the researcher spends more time with the participants.

Reactive Effects

Participants intentionally adjust their behaviour to conform to what they believe is the purpose of the study

Role SELECTION

Participants adopt an expertise role when asked questions or shift to a more passive role than usual

Research presence as a change agent

The physical environment is changed when a new person enters

Three sources of bias in sampling:

Not using a random method to pick the sample

The sampling frame

Non response - some people fail to participate which skews the data

Sampling Error

Errors of estimation that occur because there is a discrepancy between the sample group and the total population

Virtually impossible to eliminate sampling error

Using RANDOM SAMPLES and making the sample as large as possible helps to minimize sampling error.

Systemic Sample

Selected directly from the sampling frame, without using random numbers

i = size of sampling interval

To begin, chose a number at random from 1 to I , in this case 1 to 30.

That number is known as a random start

Stratified Random Sampling

Ensures that subgroups in the population are proportionally represented in the sample

Assume a sampling ratio of 1 in 20 or .05

Divide into subgroups then random selection.

Limits to Generalization

Even when a sample is selected using probability sampling, any findings can be generalized ONLY to the population from which the sample was taken.

Convenience Sampling

Cases are included because they are readily available

Problem: One cannot generalize the results to some larger population with any confidence

Convenience samples are useful for pilot studies, testing the reliability of measures to be sued in a larger study, developing ideas, learning how to do research.

Snowball Sampling

A form of convenience sampling

The researcher makes contact with some individuals, who in turn provide contacts for other participants

For example, students who participate in survey studies are asked to come up with the names of some non students who may be willing to participate.

Quota Sampling

Collecting a specified number of cases in particular categories to match the proportion of cases in that category in the population

For example, there are quotas for people in certain grouips such as age, gender, ethnicity, class, etc.

Random methods are NOT used to fill the quotas

Strengths of Quota sampling:

Cheaper and easier

Good for pilot tests

4 main things about qualitative research

Credibility

Do the people studied agree with the intepretation of their actions

Conducted through RESPONDENT MEMBER VALIDATION

The people studied may not give genuine feedback on what the research prodcued, but may instead try to please the researcher

Transferability

Can the findings be applied to other contexts or people not studied

THICK DESCRIPTION

Dependability

Were proper procedures followed?

Can the study's theoretical inferences can be justified?

"Auditing" is sometimes done where peers review research

Confirmability

Was the researcher objective?

Dis the researcher sway the results dramatically?

Auditing can be used as well for this

Kinds of qualitative research:

Ethnography/participant observation: immersed in the social setting

Qualitative interviewing: in-depth, semi-structured or unstructured

Focus groups: interview several people together

Discourse and conversation analysis: analyze the language

Content analysis: qualitative of texts and documents

Participatory action research: engage participants to produce social change.

Covert Research

a term frequently used in connection with ethnographic research in which the researcher does not reveal their true identity and/or intentions. Such research may violate the ethical principle of informed consent

Institutional Ethnography

explores how institutional discourses relate to peoples everyday experiences with institutions, and how institutional relationships intersect with larger systems of social control and power in a society.

Purposive Sampling

a form of non-probability sampling in which cases are selected on the basis of their ability to provide information relevant to the topic of the study.

Snowball Sampling

a non-probability sample in which the researcher makes initial contact with a small group of people connected to the research topic and then uses them to estalish contact with others.

Ground Theory

n approach to the analysis of qualitative data in which the goal is to use the data to generate theory; the data collection and analysis proceed in an iterative (recursive) fashion.

"Sensitizing" concepts

a concept that is not fixed in advance (as with an operational definition) but rather is treated as a guide that suggests what may be relevant or important in an investigation.

Respondent Validation -

A process whereby researchers provide the people on whom they conducted research with an account of their findings and request their feedback on it

Authenticity

refers to the degree to which research is transformative and emancipatory for the people studied and society at large.

Four Criteria of Trustworthiness:

Credibility

Transferability

Dependability

Confirmability

Contrasts between Quantitative and Qualitative Research:

"Numbers" versus "Words."

"Point of view of researcher" versus "Points of view of participants."

"Researcher is distant" versus "Researcher is close."

"Theory and concepts tested in research" versus "Theory and concepts developed from data."

"Structured" versus "Unstructured."

"Generalizable knowledge" versus "Contextual understanding."

"Hard, reliable data" versus "Rich, deep data."

"Macro" versus "Micro."