Cognitive Approach

Paper 1 IB Exam Topics with study

Thinking and Decision Making

Theory of Reasoned Action: explains that individuals choice of a particular behavior is based on the expected outcomes of that behavior

Theory of Planned Behavior: factor that influences behavioral intention is perceived behavioral control.

Study for thinking and decision making

Albarracin et al (2001)

Albarracin et al - study explanation

meta-analysis of TRA and TPB as model of condom use: 42 published and unpublished articles, 96 data sets. The study showed the TRA and TPB because people were more likely to use condoms if they were previously formed the intention. Also, the intentions were influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

Schema Theory

mental representation that organizes our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations. They are stable, deeply rooted, organized, and deprived from prior experience. They influence memory processes of all stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Study for Schema Theory

Anderson and Pichert (1978)

Anderson and Pichert - study explanation

investigated how perspective influences memory recall. Participants were asked to read a story about a house from either the perspective of a homebuyer or a burglar. Later, they were asked to recall details, and some were told to switch perspectives before recalling again. The study found that participants remembered different details depending on their assigned perspective and could recall even more information after switching. This demonstrated that memory retrieval is influenced by schemas—mental frameworks that shape how we encode and recall information.

Working Memory Model: Badgley and Hitch

explains how short-term memory is structured and functions. Instead of being a single store, they argued it has multiple components: the central executive, which directs attention and controls the other systems; the phonological loop, which deals with verbal and auditory information; the visuospatial sketchpad, which handles visual and spatial data; and later, the episodic buffer, which integrates information across the components and links to long-term memory. This model shows how we actively process and manipulate information rather than just store it briefly.

Study for working memory model

Conrad and Hull (1964)

Conrad and Hull - study explanation

conducted a study that provided evidence for the phonological loop in the Working Memory Model. They found that when participants were asked to recall sequences of letters, they often confused letters that sounded similar (like B and D) more than those that looked alike. This showed that information in short-term memory is primarily encoded acoustically rather than visually. Their findings supported the idea that the phonological loop stores verbal information based on sound, highlighting how sound-based confusion can interfere with memory recall.

Multi-Store memory Model

explains how information flows through three separate memory stores: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). Information first enters sensory memory through the senses, but it only lasts for a brief moment unless we pay attention to it. Once attended to, it moves into short-term memory, where it can be held for a short duration (around 15–30 seconds) and in limited capacity (about 7 items). Through processes like rehearsal, this information can then be encoded into long-term memory, where it can be stored indefinitely and retrieved when needed.

Study for Multi-Store Memory Model

Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)

Glanzer and Cunitz - study explanation

In their experiment, participants were asked to recall a list of words. They found that people tended to remember words at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list better than those in the middle. The primacy effect occurred because early words had been rehearsed and transferred into long-term memory, while the recency effect showed that the last words were still held in short-term memory. When participants were distracted before recalling, the recency effect disappeared, confirming the existence of separate memory stores.

Bias and Decision Making

Bias in decision-making refers to systematic errors in thinking that affect the judgments and choices people make. These biases often result from cognitive shortcuts, or heuristics, that help the brain make quick decisions but can lead to flawed outcomes. These biases can distort logical reasoning, leading to poor decisions in areas like finance, health, and everyday life. Understanding these biases helps psychologists and individuals recognize and potentially reduce their influence.

Study for Bias andDecision Making

Freedman and Fraser (1966)

Freedman and Fraser - study explanation

Participants in the experimental group were asked to sign a petition on the issue of safe driving. Two weeks later, they were all asked to display a sign on their front lawn saying, “Drive carefully.” Fewer than 20% of the control group agreed, while over 55% of the experimental group did. This shows how individuals avoid psychological discomfort by adjusting initial beliefs.

Reconstructive Thinking

Reconstructive thinking is a concept in cognitive psychology that suggests memories are not perfect recordings of events but are instead reconstructed each time they are recalled. This means that when we remember something, we actively rebuild the memory using available information, which can be influenced by our beliefs, expectations, and external information.

Study for Reconstructive Thinking

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Loftus and Palmer - study explanation

Showed that the wording of questions can distort memory. Participants watched a car crash video and estimated speeds based on different verbs: "smashed," "hit," or "contacted." Those who heard "smashed" reported higher speeds and even falsely recalled seeing broken glass, proving memory is reconstructive and influenced by language.

Influence on Emotion

The theory of flashbulb memory, proposed by Brown and Kulik (1977), suggests that people form vivid, detailed, and long-lasting memories of significant or emotional events. These memories are believed to be like a "snapshot" of the moment, capturing details such as where they were, who they were with, and how they felt.

Study for Influence on Emotion

Roger, Brown, and James Kulik (1977)

Roger, Brown, and James Kulik - study explanation

They conducted a study asking participants to recall circumstances where they learned about major events, like the assassination of John F. Kennedy. They found that participants could vividly describe where they were, who they were with, and what they felt at that moment. Brown and Kulik argued that the emotional intensity of these events triggers a special memory mechanism, making these memories more durable and detailed than ordinary ones.