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Bill of Rights
First 10 amendments to the Constitution that protect individual freedoms.
Civil Liberties
Constitutional protections from government interference (e.g., freedom of speech, religion).
Civil Rights
Protections against discrimination and unequal treatment under the law.
Selective Incorporation
Process by which the Supreme Court applies the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment.
Due Process
Legal requirement that the government must respect all legal rights owed to a person.
Procedural Due Process
Ensures fair procedures (e.g., right to a trial).
Substantive Due Process
Protects fundamental rights from government interference.
Symbolic Speech
Nonverbal expression (e.g., burning a flag) protected under the First Amendment.
Obscenity
Speech or materials that are offensive and lack serious value, not protected by the First Amendment.
The Lemon Test
A test from Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) used to determine if a law violates the Establishment Clause.
Miranda Rule
Requirement from Miranda v. Arizona (1966) that suspects must be informed of their rights before interrogation.
Majority-Minority Districts
Electoral districts where the majority of voters belong to a minority group.
Clear & Present Danger
Standard from Schenck v. United States (1919) that limits speech if it poses an immediate threat.
Prior Restraint
Government censorship of material before it is published (restricted by New York Times v. US).
Exclusionary Rule
Prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in court (Mapp v. Ohio).
Affirmative Action
Policies designed to address past discrimination in education and employment.
Indigent
A person who lacks financial resources, often entitled to free legal representation.
Engel v. Vitale (1962)
Outlawed state-sponsored prayer in public schools.
Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)
Ruled that compulsory school attendance violated Amish religious beliefs.
Employment Division v. Smith (1990)
Religious beliefs do not exempt individuals from complying with neutral laws.
Everson v. Board of Education (1947)
Established that government cannot favor or handicap religion.
Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)
Protected student symbolic speech (black armbands to protest war).
Schenck v. United States (1919)
Established clear and present danger as a limit on free speech.
New York Times v. US (1971)
Limited prior restraint; allowed Pentagon Papers publication.
McDonald v. Chicago (2010)
Incorporated the Second Amendment to the states.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)
Guaranteed the right to an attorney for indigent defendants.
Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
Recognized the right to privacy in contraception laws.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional.
Patriot Act (2001)
Expanded government surveillance powers after 9/11.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Banned discrimination in public places and employment.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Prohibited racial discrimination in voting (ended literacy tests).
Title IX (1972)
Prohibited gender discrimination in federally funded education programs.
Public Interest
The welfare or well-being of the public as a whole.
Strict Scrutiny
Highest level of judicial review for laws affecting fundamental rights.
Probable Cause
Reasonable belief of criminal activity needed for search warrants.
Search & Seizure
Fourth Amendment protection against unreasonable searches.
Right to Privacy
Implied in the Constitution, protecting personal decisions.
