Chapter 1 - The Science of Psychology

Information

Any content that reduces uncertainty for a receiver, it needs not to be correct or helpful

-Can be true/false, accurate/misleading, often easy to produce/spread and does not require justification or evidence

Truth

Correspondence between a proposition (claim) and reality; degree to which a statement accurately corresponds to reality (Theory of correspondence)

-Statement is true only if it describes a correct state of affair/how the world actually is

-Outside of our control and independent of belief, preference and expectation

Estimated by employing inductive reasoning/inferences using finite observations

Downsides of Truth

1. Truth is very expensive, fiction is cheap

2. Truth tends to be complicated, fiction is cheap

3. Truth can be painful, unpleasant, or in contradiction to what we want it to be

-Big Weakness; No matter how many observations support a claim, there’s always the possibility future observations will contradict it (ie, Black Swan)

Positives of Truth

-Improves decision-making outcomes/competence

-better predictions and less errors

-more successful as individuals

-prevents us from acting on false beliefs which is dangerous

Criteria for Scientific Conclusions to be True

1. How variables are defined/measured

2. What assumptions are made

3. Whether the design, data, and results support these conclusions

Getting Closer to the Truth

-Interrogate the sources

-Prioritize evidence over stories/identities; data/methods > anecdotal examples

-Actively engage don’t passively consume (reflect, ask questions, etc)

-Socratic questioning - method of asking thoughtful, open ended questions

-Practice falsification (ex; adopting an Aztec decision circle designed to invite dissent/offer alternative perspective)

-Embrace “I don’t Know”

-Beware of Epistemic Trespassing - intelligent people overestimating transferable skills by entering topics they’re not experts in

Research Methodology

Systematic manifestation and application of critical thinking

-Most reliable machinery for getting truth, formalizing how evidence is gathered, claims are tested and error is detected

-Conclusion from a rigorous/sound methodology is best answer given current evidence

Socratic Question Types

1. Clarification

2. Probing assumptions

3. Examining evidence

4. Exploring implications

5. Consider alternatives

Methods of Knowing

1. Intuition - generates ideas

2. Authority - offers guidance

3. Rationalism - structures predictions

4. Empiricism - provides benefit of collective evidence

5. The Scientific Method - integrates all 4; adds structure, transparency, falsifiability and replication

Intuition

Beliefs/conclusions based on gut feelings, instinct, personal experience/anecdotal evidence

Key Limitation - Feels compelling, but vulnerable to bias/error

-Can be useful in situations requiring fast responses/decisions without time to think of all possibilities

Authority

Accepting new ideas because authority figure states that they are true

-Authorities: Parents, media, doctors, religion, government, professors

Key Limitation - Authorities can be wrong, biased or misleading

Learning to evaluate credentials of authorities, their methods used to arrive at conclusions, and whether they have any reason to mislead us is important

Rationalism

Using logic and reasoning to acquire new knowledge

-Premises are stated and logical rules are followed to arrive at sound conclusions

-Problem is that if the premises are wrong or if there is an error in logic, the conclusion will not be valid

Key Limitation - Conclusions are only as good as the assumptions

Empiricism

Acquiring knowledge through observation and measurement, relies on data, evidence and expertise

-We are limited in what we can experience and observe, and our senses can deceive us

Key Limitation - Evidence can be misused or misinterpreted without good design

Scientific Method

Process of systematically collecting and evaluating evidence to test ideas and answer questions

-Scientists may use intution, authority, rationalism and empiricism to generate new ideas

-Systematic empiricism to make careful observations under various controlled conditions

Major Problem; Not always feasible to use the scientific method (requires time, resources, etc)

-Cannot answer all questions

Core Features of Scientific Method

1. Ideas are stated in a way that can be tested and falsified

2. Systematic Empiricism - Careful observation/measurement under controlled conditions

3. Rational Evaluation - Conclusion must logically follow from evidence

4. Transparency and replication - methods, data, results shared so others can evaluate/replicate findings

5. Self-correcting - Conclusions/theories are revised when new evidence emerges

Science and Features of Science

Systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment, features include;

1. Systematic Empiricism - Learning based on observation and carefully planning, making, recording and analyzing those observations

2. Empirical Questions - Questions about the way the world is that can be answered through systematic observations

3. Public Knowledge - After asking empirical questions, making systematic observations, and drawing conclusions the results are published for the general public

Criteria for Causal Claim

1. Covariation of Cause and Effect - When cause is present the effect occurs, when cause is not present the effect doesn’t occur

2. Temporal Precedence - Cause must precede the effect

3. Ruling out alternative explanations - cause is isolated from any other potential cause; nothing other than causal variable can be responsible for the observed effect

Publication Importance in Science

1. Current scientific knowledge of most topics is based on many different studies by different researchers who work collaboratively by sharing their work

2. Allows science to be self-correcting via peer review

Pseudoscience

Activities and beliefs that are claimed to be scientific by their proponents and may appear to be scientific, but are not

Ex; Biorhythms - idea that people’s physical, intellectual and emotional abilities run in cycles that begin when they’re born

Requirements: If adherents claim/imply its scientific but it lacks one or more of the three features of science

-Beliefs/activities can also be scientific if it does not address empirical questions

Karl Popper

Argued any scientific claim must be expressed in a way that observations would count as evidence against the claim

-In other words; scientific claims msut be falsifiable

Why Concern Ourselves with Pseudoscience

1. Pseudoscience brings fundamental features of science into sharper focus

2. Pseudoscientific beliefs are widely held and promoted on medias, thus learning to identify/evaluate them is important

3. Pseudoscience purport to explain aspects of human behaviour and mental processes, require distinguishment from psychology

Three Goals of Science

1. Describe - goal is achieved by making careful observations on a particular topic

2. Predict - After observing that two behaviours/events are systematically related, we use that information to predict whether an event or behaviour will occur in a certain situation

3. Explain - Goal involves determining the cause of behaviour

Basic vs Applied Research

Basic Research - Conducted for the sake of achieving more detailed/accurate understanding of human behaviour

Applied Research - Conducted primarily to address a particular problem

-Basic/Applied research go hand-in-hand, basic findings inform applied solutions, and practical problems inspire a basic question

Folk Psychology

Intuitive beliefs about people’s behaviour, thoughts and feelings

-Much of it is reasonably accurate, but most is not

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts in forming and maintain our beliefs

Example: Assuming something is true if it is widely shared and approved by experts

Confirmation Bias

Tendency to focus on cases that confirm our intuitive beliefs and to disregard cases that disconfirm our beliefs

Skepticism

Considering alternatives and searching for evidence, especially systematically collected empirical evidence, when there is enough at stake to justify doing so

-Important aspect of science

Tolerance for Uncertainty

Accepting that there are many things that we simply do not know

-Often not enough evidence to fully evaluate a belief/claim, thus we have a Tolerance for Uncertainty

Clinical Psychologists

Diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and related problems

-Since psychological disorders/behavioural problems are part of the natural world, the questions about their nature, causes and consequences are empirically testable and subject to scientific study

Empirically Supported Treatment - Treatment shown through systematic observation to lead to better outcomes when compared to n-treamtent or placebo control groups

Experimental Psychologists

Perform scientific research for government agencies, national associations, non-profits or the private sector

-Majority are college/university faculty that have expertise in one or many subfields of psychology