Modern Core - Power and authority

What were the five peace treaties made at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920)?

Treaty of Versailles (Germany, 1919); Treaty of St Germain (Austria, 1919); Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria, 1919); Treaty of Trianon (Hungary, 1920); Treaty of Sevres (Ottoman Empire, 1920)

When was the Treaty of Versailles signed and with which country?

28 June 1919, with Germany

What were the 'Big Three' leaders at the Paris Peace Conference?

Woodrow Wilson (USA), David Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France)

What did Woodrow Wilson want from the peace settlement?

Moral authority, his 14 Point Plan, the League of Nations, self-determination for nations, and reasonable reparations

What did David Lloyd George want from the peace settlement?

He wanted Germany punished but realised Britain needed a strong international economy (including Germany); he opposed giving away German territory as it could cause future problems

What did Georges Clemenceau want from the peace settlement?

A punitive peace, to ensure France's security, to weaken Germany by reducing its size, and large reparations

What territorial terms did the Treaty of Versailles impose on Germany?

Loss of colonies (as League of Nations mandates), return of Alsace-Lorraine to France, land given up to create Poland, port cities made international 'free cities', and a ban on reunifying with Austria

What was the 'War Guilt Clause' of the Treaty of Versailles?

Article 231 - Germany was forced to accept full responsibility for causing all the loss and damage of WWI, forming the legal basis for reparations

How much did Germany lose in reparations under the Treaty of Versailles, and when was it fully repaid?

132 billion Gold Marks (approx. $270 billion today), finally repaid in 2010

What disarmament terms did the Treaty of Versailles impose on Germany?

Army reduced to 100,000 with conscription abolished; no tanks, 'big guns' or military aircraft; a limited navy (6 battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats, no submarines); demilitarised Rhineland

What organisation was created to maintain peace under the Treaty of Versailles?

The League of Nations (though Germany was initially barred from joining)

What percentage of territory, population and resources did Germany lose under the Treaty of Versailles?

13% of territory, 12% of population, 15% of agricultural production, 48% of iron-ore, 15% of coal

What were the geographical consequences of the WWI peace treaties?

Unstable new borders as four empires collapsed (German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman); old infrastructure did not suit new nations, causing mobility problems

What problem did 'national minorities' cause after WWI?

Self-determination could not be applied perfectly, so many new nations contained dissatisfied ethnic minorities split by arbitrary borders (e.g. Germans now living in Austria, Russians now in Poland)

What economic consequences did the peace treaties cause?

Old empires lost workers and territory (e.g. Austria lost 40% of population, two-thirds of territory) while paying reparations; free trade was replaced by taxed trade between new nations

How did Germany and Hungary react politically to the resentment caused by the treaties?

In 1919 Hungary's communist government was replaced by a military dictatorship, and Germany's monarchy was replaced by the democratic Weimar Republic

Why did Germans call the Treaty of Versailles a 'Diktat'?

They felt it was a forced/dictated 'slave treaty' - Germany was threatened with continued blockade and military action unless it signed

Give four reasons Germans resented the Treaty of Versailles.

1) It was forced under threat (Diktat) 2) It differed drastically from Wilson's 14 Points 3) The War Guilt clause forced them to accept sole blame despite believing they fought defensively 4) Britain and France remained heavily armed, creating security fears

What was the 'Stab in the Back Myth' and how did it relate to the Treaty of Versailles?

The belief that the German army was never defeated but was 'stabbed in the back' by democratic politicians, socialists, Jews and pacifists (the 'November Criminals') who signed the armistice/treaty; Hitler later used it to blame Jews

What four countries are studied as examples of interwar dictatorships?

Germany, Italy, Russia (USSR) and Japan

List four similarities between the interwar dictatorships of Germany, Italy, Russia and Japan.

1) All rejected democratic values at roughly the same time 2) All placed loyalty to the state above individual rights and freedoms 3) Power was based on a combination of fear and reward 4) Authority rested on loyalty to a leader, ideology or set of values

What is the difference between an authoritarian and a totalitarian regime?

Authoritarian regimes use power to stabilise society and preserve tradition without reshaping it; totalitarian regimes actively try to reshape all of society (media, economy, ideology) through a mass political movement

What were the main conditions that enabled Hitler's rise to power in Germany?

The Treaty of Versailles, financial instability, loss of territory and prestige, and the Great Depression

What were the main features of Hitler's dictatorship?

Terror, the Enabling Act, abolishing state governments, and concentration camps

What were the main conditions that enabled Mussolini's rise to power in Italy?

Denial of promised territory after WWI, economic downturn, nationalism, and fear of social revolution (communism)

What were the main features of Mussolini's dictatorship?

Restoring 'order', gaining access to colonies, promoting Romanita (the spirit of the Roman Empire), and intimidation

What were the main conditions that enabled Stalin's rise to power in Russia?

Military defeat, economic hardship, poor government management, and civil war

What were the main features of Stalin's dictatorship?

Purges, state-controlled media, collectivisation, and industrialisation

What were the main conditions that enabled militarism to rise in Japan under Emperor Hirohito?

Denial of territory, restricted voting rights, trade barriers, and nationalism

What were the main features of Japan's dictatorship?

Rise of militarism, becoming a territorial giant, economic growth, and industrialisation

How did Italy's and Japan's experience of the Paris Peace Conference contribute to their move towards dictatorship?

Both were on the winning side of WWI and expected territorial rewards, but felt denied and disrespected (e.g. Japan's Racial Equality proposal was rejected), fuelling nationalist resentment and support for authoritarian leaders

Why was Japan's Racial Equality proposal at the Paris Peace Conference significant?

Japan proposed it in 1919 to be treated as an equal power; it was approved by 7 of 11 League Committee members but Wilson rejected it for lacking unanimity, fuelling Japanese resentment of Western hypocrisy and feeding pan-Asian expansionist ideology

How did Mussolini use propaganda and cult of personality in Italy?

School teachers were ordered to magnify Mussolini as a heroic, disinterested genius; his image was displayed on public buildings; he was compared to figures like Napoleon and used stage-managed balcony speeches to involve crowds

Why was the Weimar Republic's constitution structurally weak?

It was Germany's first real democracy, so people had little commitment to it; weaknesses like Article 48 and proportional representation made stable government difficult

What was Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution?

An 'emergency powers' clause letting the President suspend civil rights and rule by decree without the Reichstag's approval; overused, it normalised authoritarian rule and was later exploited by Hitler

Why did proportional representation weaken the Weimar Republic?

It meant the Reichstag never had a majority party, causing more than 30 parties and constant government instability

What was the Spartacist Uprising (1919)?

A failed revolution by the Communist KPD/Spartacus League who distrusted the Social Democrats; President Ebert used the army and Freikorps to crush it, over-relying on right-wing forces who believed the Stab-in-the-Back myth

Who were the Freikorps?

Volunteer paramilitary corps of WWI veterans who couldn't reintegrate into society, idealised militarised masculinity, hated the Republic, believed in the Stab-in-the-Back myth, and later fed into the Nazi SA

What was the Occupation of the Ruhr (1923)?

After Germany defaulted on reparations in 1922, French and Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr industrial region; Germans responded with passive resistance, which further weakened the economy

What was hyperinflation and how did it affect Germany in 1923?

The government printed money it didn't have to cope with reparations/Ruhr costs, causing prices to skyrocket; by November 1923 one US dollar equalled 4,420,000,000 marks, wiping out savings

What was the Munich (Beer Hall) Putsch of 1923?

A failed coup by Hitler and the Nazis (inspired by Mussolini's March on Rome) to seize the Bavarian government and march on Berlin; it was quickly crushed, but made Hitler nationally famous

What happened to Hitler after the failed Munich Putsch?

He was tried for treason, used the 24-day trial to spread his views, received only a 5-year sentence (served 9 months) and wrote 'Mein Kampf' in prison

What was the significance of the failed Munich Putsch for Hitler's strategy?

He realised the Nazis could only gain power through legal means, so shifted to winning seats in the Reichstag through elections rather than force

How did Hitler's early life shape his political views?

His parents' deaths and time in Vienna shaped his anti-Semitism; he served as a soldier in WWI, won the Iron Cross, and blamed Germany's defeat on the 'Stab in the Back'

How did the German Workers' Party become the Nazi Party?

Hitler joined the small German Workers' Party (DAP) in 1919 while spying on it for the army; it was renamed the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP/Nazi Party) in February 1920

What was the SA and why was it created?

The Sturmabteilung ('Storm Troopers'/brownshirts), a Nazi paramilitary force created for 'protection' but actually used to intimidate rival parties, led by Ernst Rohm

What were the 'Golden Years' of the Weimar Republic (1924-1929)?

Under Chancellor Gustav Stresemann, Germany stabilised via a new currency, the Dawes Plan (1924, reduced reparations), Treaty of Locarno (1925, accepted new borders, joined League of Nations) and Young Plan (1929, further reduced reparations)

Why did the Nazis fail to gain electoral success during the Golden Age of Weimar?

The economy was stabilising thanks to Stresemann's reforms and US loans, so extremist parties like the Nazis had little appeal; they never rose above about 3% of the vote 1924-1929

How did the Great Depression (from 1929) help the Nazis rise to power?

Germany's economy relied on US loans which were recalled after the Wall Street Crash; unemployment reached 20% by 1932, and the Nazis offered simple solutions (strong leadership, jobs via public works, action against communists) while other parties struggled

How did Hitler campaign during the early 1930s?

He was a modern campaigner, using radio and flights around Germany ('Hitler over Germany'), attacking the Treaty of Versailles, the 'November Criminals', communists, and Jews

How did Hitler become Chancellor of Germany?

After Nazi electoral gains in 1932, conservative advisors (especially Franz von Papen) convinced President Hindenburg that Hitler could be controlled in a coalition government; Hindenburg appointed him Chancellor on 30 January 1933

Why did Hindenburg appoint Hitler as Chancellor despite distrusting him?

Political pressure from Nazi electoral success, underestimating Hitler (believing he could be controlled), instability of Weimar democracy, fear of communism, and miscalculations by advisors like von Papen

What was the Dawes Plan (1924)?

An American loan plan that reduced Germany's reparations repayments and spread them over 60 years

What was the Treaty of Locarno (1925)?

An agreement accepting Germany's new borders; Germany was admitted to the League of Nations as a result

What was the Young Plan (1929)?

A further reduction of Germany's reparations debt to the Allies

What was the Reichstag Fire (27 February 1933) and its consequence?

A fire destroyed the German parliament building; a communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was arrested and blamed. Hitler used it to justify the Decree for the Protection of the People and the State, suspending civil rights and allowing arrests of Communists and Social Democrats

What was the Enabling Act (March 1933)?

A law passed after the last free election, allowing Hitler's government to make laws without the Reichstag's approval for four years, effectively ending democracy

What was the Law for the Restoration of the Civil Service?

A 1933 law preventing Jewish people from working in government jobs

What were the Nuremberg Laws (1935)?

Laws defining who could be a German citizen, banning marriage and sexual relations between Jews and Germans, and stripping Jews of citizenship rights

What happened to trade unions and rival political parties in 1933?

Trade unions were abolished on 2 May 1933; by July 1933 all rival political parties were banned, leaving the Nazis as the sole legal party

What was the Night of the Long Knives (30 June - 2 July 1934)?

A purge in which Hitler had Ernst Rohm and the SA leadership, plus other political rivals (e.g. Schleicher), killed to appease the army and industrialists concerned about the SA's growing power and radicalism

Why was Ernst Rohm purged in the Night of the Long Knives?

He wanted to merge the SA with the regular army and pursue a more radical 'second revolution', threatening both the army's position and Hitler's alliance with conservative elites and industrialists

What happened after President Hindenburg's death (2 August 1934)?

Hitler merged the roles of President and Chancellor to become Fuhrer und Reichskanzler; the presidency was abolished and the army swore an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler, completing his dictatorship

What were the key legal/constitutional steps of the Nazis' consolidation of power 1933-1934?

Reichstag Fire Decree (Feb 1933), Enabling Act (March 1933), banning of unions and rival parties (May-July 1933), Night of the Long Knives (June 1934), and death of Hindenburg leading to Hitler becoming Fuhrer (August 1934)

What is Social Darwinism as used in Nazi ideology?

The misapplication of Darwin's 'survival of the fittest' to human races, claiming some races (e.g. Aryans) were superior and destined to dominate 'inferior' races through struggle

What is the difference between Scientific Racism and Social Darwinism in Nazi ideology?

Scientific Racism was the belief one culture is superior based on physical traits (skull size, skin colour); Social Darwinism was the belief some cultures are superior due to technological or cultural advancement, requiring racial struggle

What is the Fuhrerprinzip ('leader principle')?

The idea of a single all-powerful leader who perfectly embodies the will of the people; the Nazis used it to build the 'Hitler Myth' and cult of personality

What was the 'Hitler Myth'?

Propaganda image of Hitler as tirelessly working for the German people with no selfish motives, defender of Germany's rights and rebuilder of national pride - key to indoctrinating Germans, especially youth

What does Autarky mean in Nazi ideology?

Economic self-sufficiency; Hitler wanted Germany independent of other nations, pursued via projects like the Autobahns and 'Strength through Joy', partly to prepare for rearmament and war

What does Lebensraum mean?

'Living space' - Hitler's belief Germany needed to expand into Eastern Europe for fertile land to support a unified 'Grossdeutschland' (Greater Germany)

What does Volksgemeinschaft mean?

'People's community' - a racially pure, unified German society transcending class and regional divisions

What does Grossdeutschland mean?

'Greater Germany' - the idea that Germany should expand to unite all German-speaking peoples

What is Antisemitism as it relates to Nazi ideology?

Prejudice against Jewish people and culture; central to Nazi ideology, blaming Jews for Germany's problems including defeat in WWI and the Treaty of Versailles

What is scapegoating and how did the Nazis use it?

Falsely blaming a group for a problem; the Nazis scapegoated Jews and communists for Germany's defeat, the Treaty of Versailles, and the Great Depression

What were the origins of Nazi ideology in written form?

Hitler's 'Mein Kampf' (written in prison 1924) and the NSDAP's 25-Point Programme (1920), described as an 'unalterable' expression of party philosophy

Give four key demands of the Nazi 25-Point Programme.

Union of all Germans into a Greater Germany; abolition of the Treaty of Versailles; land/colonies (Lebensraum) for the German people; only those of German blood could be citizens (excluding Jews)

Why is Hitler sometimes described as a 'weak dictator' administratively?

He hated paperwork, avoided administrative burdens and slept until noon, creating a chaotic, competitive, overlapping Nazi power structure - possibly deliberate to encourage 'survival of the fittest' among subordinates

Who was Hermann Goering and what were his key roles?

WWI veteran and early Nazi; became second-most powerful man in Germany after 1933; founded the Gestapo; became commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (1935) and led the Four-Year Plan (1940); named Hitler's successor in 1941 but fell from favour and later executed himself before hanging at Nuremberg

Who was Heinrich Himmler and what were his key roles?

Reichsfuhrer of the SS, which he built into a powerful force; one of the people most directly responsible for the Holocaust; set up concentration/extermination camps; became Chief of German Police and Minister of the Interior; tried to open secret peace talks in 1945, was dismissed, and died by suicide after capture

Who was Joseph Goebbels and what were his key roles?

Nazi Reich Minister of Propaganda and Public Enlightenment (1933-1945); controlled media/culture, organised anti-Jewish boycotts and helped incite Kristallnacht; created the 'Fuhrer myth'; committed suicide with his wife after killing their six children in May 1945

Who was Reinhard Heydrich and what were his key roles?

High-ranking SS official, head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD); chaired the Wannsee Conference (Jan 1942) where the 'Final Solution' was agreed; directly responsible for the Einsatzgruppen killing squads; assassinated by Czech resistance in 1942

Who was Ernst Rohm and what happened to him?

Leader of the SA and one of Hitler's oldest friends; wanted to merge the SA with the army; arrested and shot during the Night of the Long Knives (June 1934)

Who was Rudolf Hess and what were his key roles?

Hitler's private secretary who took dictation of Mein Kampf; Deputy leader of the Nazi Party (1933); lost favour after flying to Scotland in 1941 attempting to negotiate peace; imprisoned by the British for the rest of the war

Who was Adolf Eichmann and what were his key roles?

Joined the SS in 1933; set up the Central Office for Jewish Emigration; became 'Jewish Specialist' and Director of Jewish Affairs (1941); known as the 'Chief Executioner of the Third Reich'; escaped to Argentina, was captured in 1960, tried in Israel and executed in 1962

Who was Albert Speer and what were his key roles?

Architect who renovated Nazi headquarters and coordinated the Nuremberg Rallies; became Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production, using slave labour; denied knowledge of the Holocaust and served a prison term at Spandau

Who was Leni Riefenstahl and what was her role in the Nazi state?

A filmmaker employed by Hitler to film the 1933-34 Nuremberg Rallies ('Victory of Faith', 'Triumph of the Will') and the 1936 Berlin Olympics; considered a key Nazi propagandist despite her later denials

What was Gleichschaltung?

The Nazi process of 'coordination'/'Nazification' - bringing all aspects of German society (media, culture, education, youth groups, unions) under Nazi control to create the Volksgemeinschaft

What was the Reichstag Fire Decree?

A law suspending individual rights and due process, allowing the Nazis to eliminate political opponents after the Reichstag Fire

What was the Law Against the Establishment of Parties (July 1933)?

It legalised the Nazi ban on all political parties except the NSDAP

What was the Law Against Malicious Acts on State and Party (December 1934)?

It ended freedom of expression, banning criticism of the Nazis even in private

What was the Hitler Youth Law (1936, 1939)?

It first banned non-Nazi youth groups, then made membership in the Hitler Youth compulsory

What was the Law for the Prevention of Diseased Progeny (1933)?

A law forcing the sterilisation of people with physical or mental disabilities, based on Nazi racial purity ideology

How did censorship and propaganda work together under the Nazis?

Propaganda celebrated the regime's (real or fake) achievements while censorship restricted information that could counter them - you 'cannot have one without the other'

What was the Reich Chamber of Culture (Reichskulturkammer)?

A body led by Goebbels that regulated newspapers, literature, radio, cinema, theatre and visual arts; membership (proof of 'Aryan' heritage) was required to work in these fields

What happened during the Nazi book burnings of 1933?

The German Student Union (backed by Goebbels) organised burnings of books opposing Nazi ideology, e.g. about 22,000 books burned in Berlin, May 1933

What was the 'Entartete Kunst' (Degenerate Art) Exhibition of 1937?

An exhibition mocking modern art (Impressionism, Expressionism) as 'monstrosities of madness'; ironically it attracted more visitors than the officially approved Great German Art Exhibition

How did the Nazis control newspapers?

The Editors Law (October 1939) meant editors were told what stories to run and pictures to use; all news was merged into the German News Agency, which distributed Nazi propaganda

What were the two purposes of Nazi propaganda according to Goebbels?

To persuade the German people to love Nazi ideology and to have faith in the regime's course of action, using repetition, simplicity and emotion

How did the Nuremberg Rallies function as propaganda?

Mass rallies magnified Hitler as a god-like figure through uniforms, military music, flags and banners, helping construct the Volksgemeinschaft and broadcast the experience nationwide

What was the Gestapo and how did it operate?

The Secret State Police, set up November 1933 under Himmler; conducted surveillance and dealt with 'enemies of the state' without court interference; had only about 45,000 personnel nationwide and relied heavily on informants and denunciations