Psychology Exam 2

Cognition

the mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge

Thinking

the manipulation of mental representations of information in order to draw inferences and conclusions

Algorithm

a problem-solving strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method that inevitably produces the correct solution

Heuristic

a problem-solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions; Subgoals, working backward, flexibility

Insight

the sudden realization of how a problem can be solved

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way

Mental Set

The tendency to persist with solutions that have worked in the past

Single-Feature Model

In order to simplify the choice among many alternatives, you base your decision on a single feature; Good for minor decisions

Additive Model

In this model, you first generate a list of the factors that are most important to you. Then, you rate each alternative for each factor using an arbitrary scale, such as from 1 to 10. Finally, you add up the ratings for each alternative. This strategy can often reveal the best overall choice.

Elimination-by-Aspects Model

Using this model, you evaluate all the alternatives one characteristic at a time, typically starting with the feature you consider most important. If a particular alternative fails to meet that criterion, you scratch it off your list of possible choices, even if it possesses other desirable attributes.

Available Heuristic

A strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated on the basis of how readily available other instances of the event are in memory

Representative Heuristic

A strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event

Intelligence

the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

Binet’s Conception of Intelligence

Binet focused on elementary mental abilities, such as memory, attention, and the ability to understand similarities and differences.

Wechler’s Conception of Intelligence

Wechsler’s test provided scores on 11 subtests measuring different abilities. The subtest scores were grouped to provide an overall verbal score and performance score. The verbal score represented scores on subtests of vocabulary, comprehension, knowledge of general information, and other verbal tasks. The performance score reflected scores on largely nonverbal subtests.

Mental Age

a measurement of intelligence in which an individual’s mental level is expressed in terms of the average abilities of a given age group

Spearman’s Conception of Intelligence

A common factor, or general mental capacity, is at the core of different mental abilities. People who did well or poorly on a test of one mental ability, such as verbal ability, tended also to do well or poorly on the other tests

“g” Factor

the notion of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person’s overall performance on tests of mental ability

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Theory that there are three distinct forms of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical; emphasizes both the universal aspects of intelligent behavior and the importance of adapting to a particular social and cultural environment

“s” Factor

Task-specific abilities that load only on certain tests and are not shared across all cognitive domains

Cattell’s Conception of Intelligence

Breaks intelligence into three layers (or “strata,” as the theorists call the layers). The first layer is the broadest and represents general intelligence, or g. The second layer includes broad abilities, such as reading and writing, cognitive processing speed, and quantitative knowledge. The third layer includes narrow abilities that fall under the category of each broad ability.

Fluid Intelligence

the ability to reason, solve novel problems, and adapt to new situations independently of prior knowledge or experience

Crystallized Intelligence

the accumulated knowledge and skills gained through education, experience, and cultural exposure, which you apply to solve problems and make decisions

Intelligence Quotient

a measure of general intelligence derived by comparing an individual’s score with the scores of others in the same age group

Test Validity

the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Heritability Coefficient

the percentage of variation within a given population that is due to heredity; approximately 50 percent of the difference in IQ scores within a given population is due to genetic factors

Measuring Genetic and Environmental Influence on IQ

Genetic influence is shown by the fact that the closer the genetic relationship, the more similar the IQ scores. Environmental influences are demonstrated by two findings: First, two people who are genetically identical but are raised in different homes have different IQ scores. And second, two people who are genetically unrelated but are raised in the same home have IQs that are much more similar than are those of two unrelated people from randomly selected homes

Motivation

the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior

Instinct theory and James’s list of human instincts

the view that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming; Attachment, Resentment, Fear, Curiosity, Disgust, Shyness, Rivalry, Sociability, Greediness, Bashfulness, Suspicion, Secretiveness, Hunting, Cleanliness, Play, Modesty, Shame, Love, Anger, Parental love

Motivational state or drive

a need or internal motivational state that activates behavior to reduce the need and restore homeostasis

Incentive and arousal theory

the view that behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals, such as rewards; the view that people are motivated to maintain a level of arousal that is optimal — neither too high nor too low

Humanistic theory

the view that emphasizes the importance of psychological and cognitive factors in motivation, especially the notion that people are motivated to realize their personal potential

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hypothesized levels of motivation that involve basic physical needs, psychological needs, and self-fulfillment needs

Internal versus external motivation

the desire to engage in tasks that are inherently satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging; the external factors or influences on behavior, such as rewards, consequences, or social expectations

Achievement goal theory

the desire to direct your behavior toward excelling, succeeding, or outperforming others at some task

Dweck’s Contribution

Dweck theorized that some people believe intelligence is fixed and doesn’t change much, whereas others believe intelligence is changeable and can grow with effort. Dweck and her colleague, David Yeager, theorize that these beliefs give rise to different goal-setting behaviors, responses to challenges, and persistence in problem solving. The key difference between these two styles has been more recently described as representing a “fixed” mindset (performance goals) versus a “growth” mindset (mastery goals).

Homeostasis

the idea that the body monitors and maintains internal states, such as energy supplies, at relatively constant levels

Regulatory and nonregulatory drives

Regulatory drives are generalized states of arousal or motivation that are necessary for immediate survival and help maintain physiological homeostasis

Nonregulatory drives are generalized states of arousal or motivation that indirectly promote survival but are not essential for immediate survival

Role of genetics/culture in determining body weight

Genetics: Metabolism, appetite regulation, fat storage patterns, energy expenditure

Culture: Dietary habits, physical activity, social and economic factors, stress and sleep

Role of ghrelin and leptin in hunger

Ghrelin: an appetite-stimulating hormone manufactured by cells lining the stomach. Blood levels of ghrelin rise sharply before and fall abruptly after meals. When people lose weight, ghrelin levels — and feelings of hunger — increase, which is one reason that people who lose weight generally gain it back

Leptin: a hormone produced by fat cells that signals the hypothalamus how much fat is in the body, regulating hunger and eating behavior. The amount of leptin in the bloodstream rises with increasing fat stores. When the level of these hormones in the brain increases, food intake is reduced and the body’s fat stores shrink over time. When fat stores shrink, blood levels of leptin decrease, triggering eating behavior

Set point theory

theory that humans and other animals have a natural weight, called the set-point weight, that the body maintains

Arousal response

When arousal is too low, we experience boredom and become motivated to increase arousal by seeking out stimulating experiences. But when arousal is too high, we seek to reduce arousal in a less stimulating environment.

Yerkes Dodson Law

The idea that there is an ideal level of arousal for performing a task successively; predicts that there are different levels of arousal that are optimal depending on how well-practiced the skill is

What is emotion and what are common/basic emotions?

Emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct but related components: a cognitive experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response

Basic emotions are the most fundamental set of emotion categories, which are biologically innate, evolutionarily determined, and culturally universal. (Fear, Disgust, Surprise, Happiness, Anger, Sadness)

Interpersonal engagement

the emotion dimension reflecting the degree to which emotions involve a relationship with another person or other people

Experience and expression of emotion: Ekman’s contribution

Ekman proposed that facial expressions for the basic emotions are innate and hard-wired in the brain. Further evidence comes from children who are born blind and deaf. Despite their inability to observe or hear others, they express joy, anger, and pleasure using the same expressions as sighted and hearing children

Role of the sympathetic nervous system in emotion

The pounding heart and churning stomach that occur when you experience an intense emotion like fear reflect the activation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.

Effect of arousal on performance of easy and difficult tasks

Higher level of arousal reduces performance on unpracticed skills. This suggests that studying is important: When you practice remembering the information and make that a well-practiced skill, the increased arousal of the exam should not reduce performance as much

Common sense theory of emotions

the intuitive, everyday understanding of how emotions work. According to this theory, when an event occurs, we first feel an emotion, and this emotional experience then causes our body to react physiologically

James Lange theory of emotion

the theory that emotions arise from the perception of body changes; James believed that emotion follows this sequence: (1) We perceive a stimulus; (2) physiological and behavioral changes occur, which (3) we experience as a particular emotion.

Two factor theory of emotion (arousal plus label)

Schachter and Singer’s theory that emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we apply to explain the arousal; we cognitively label physiological arousal as a given emotion based on our appraisal of a situation

Cognitive appraisal theory (appraisal is trigger)

the theory that emotional responses are triggered by a cognitive evaluation; asserts that the most important aspect of an emotional experience is your cognitive interpretation, or appraisal, of the situation or stimulus. That is, emotions result from our appraisal of the personal meaning of events and experiences

Facial feedback theory

the view that expressing a specific emotion, especially facially, causes the subjective experience of that emotion

What is gender versus sex?

sex refers to biologically determined physical characteristics, such as differences in genetic composition and reproductive anatomy and function

gender refers to cultural, social, and psychological meanings, including those associated with masculinity and femininity

What is gender identity?

a person’s psychological sense of self as male, female, or another gender

Sexual orientation

the direction of a person’s emotional and erotic attraction, whether toward members of a different sex, the same sex, all sexes, or no sexes.

Gender roles

behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits, including those designated as masculine or feminine, in a given culture.

Gender-role stereotypes

The beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behavior of people based on their gender

Gender role development, and differences between males and females

Most toddlers begin using gender labels between the ages of 18 and 21 months. And, roughly between the ages of 2 and 3, children identify themselves and other children as boys or girls. Young children identify the sexes in terms of external attributes, such as hairstyle, clothing, and activities. Roughly between the ages of 2 and 3, preschoolers start acquiring gender stereotypes for toys, clothing, household objects, games, and work.

Boys are far more rigid than girls in their preferences for toys associated with their own sex. Their attitudes about the sexes are also more rigid than are those held by girls. As girls grow older, they become even more flexible in their views of sex-appropriate activities and attributes, but boys become even less flexible.

Toy preferences in young children

Toddler girls tend to play more with soft toys and dolls, and ask for help from adults more than toddler boys generally do. Toddler boys tend to play more with blocks and transportation toys, such as trucks and wagons. They also tend to play more actively than do girls

Social learning theory in explaining gender differences

the theory that gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling

Gender schema theory in explaining gender differences

the theory that gender development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity

Psychological model of masculinity/femininity: Androgyny and Undifferentiated

Model	Trait Levels	Integration	Flexibility	Psychological Outcome
Androgyny	High on both	High	High	Better adaptability, mental health, creativity
Undifferentiated	High on both	Low	Low	Potential role confusion, less adaptive behavior

Independence versus connectedness

Independence = self as separate, goal-oriented, individualist.

Connectedness = self as relational, role-based, interdependent.

Gender influences these tendencies through socialization and cultural norms. Sexuality is shaped by both self-construal and cultural expectations, with connectedness often linked to intimacy and relationality, while independence may link to autonomy and personal goals.

Gender differences/similarities in personality, emotions, cognition

For most personality characteristics, there are no significant average differences between men and women. However, women tend to be more nurturant than men and men tend to be more assertive than women.

Women and men are fairly similar in the experience of emotions, although they do differ somewhat in the expression of emotions. Women and men do not seem to differ in all types of emotional expressions, and in some cases, such as the tendency to furrow their brows when angry, men are more expressive. The expression of emotions is also strongly influenced by culturally determined display rules.

Females consistently score slightly higher than males on tests of verbal fluency, but there doesn’t seem to be a gender difference on other skills. Males outscore females on some, but not all, tests of spatial skills. For example, males consistently outperform females on tests measuring the ability to mentally rotate three-dimensional figures, and women are significantly better than men at remembering the location of objects. Recent research indicates that in countries in which girls take as much math as boys, such as the United States, there no longer seems to be a gender difference.

Evolutionary theory to explain gender differences

Gender differences are the result of generations of the dual forces of sexual selection and parental investment. Physical and psychological characteristics — related to either the choice of a mate or the investment in raising one’s children — that increase the likelihood of reproductive success tend to become more common.

People with intersex variations

individuals for whom their biological sex may combine aspects of male and female physiology and anatomy, the latter of which can appear “ambiguous” to others as a result

What is transgenderism versus gender dysphoria?

Transgender people are individuals for whom their psychological gender identity conflicts with their biological sex

A diagnosis of gender dysphoria is made only when a transgender person experiences intense distress or problems functioning at work, in relationships, or in other areas. It is the feeling of distress, and not being transgender, that is considered to be a psychological disorder

Sigmund Freud and the psychoanalytic approach

Freud’s theory of personality that stresses the influence of unconscious mental processes, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and the enduring effects of early childhood experiences on later personality development

Conscious, preconscious, and unconscious

Conscious: All the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that you’re aware of at this particular moment

Preconscious: Contains information that you’re not currently aware of but can easily bring to conscious awareness, such as memories of recent events or your street address

Unconscious: Freud’s term to describe thoughts, feelings, wishes, and drives that are operating below the level of conscious awareness

Role of the Id, Ego, Superego

Id: in Freud’s theory, is the completely unconscious irrational component of personality that seeks immediate satisfaction of instinctual urges and drives

Ego: in Freud’s theory, is the partly conscious rational component of personality that regulates thoughts and behavior, and is most in touch with the demands of the external world

Superego: in Freud’s theory, the partly conscious, self-evaluative, moralistic component of personality that is formed through the internalization of parental and societal rules

Defense Mechanisms

largely unconscious distortions of thoughts or perceptions that act to reduce anxiety

Repression

the unconscious exclusion of anxiety-provoking thoughts, feelings, and memories from conscious awareness

Reaction formation

Thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or impulses

Displacement

the defense mechanism that involves unconsciously shifting the target of an emotional urge to a substitute target that is less threatening or dangerous

Sublimation

A form of displacement in which sexual urges are rechanneled into productive, nonsexual activities

Projection

The attribution of one’s own unacceptable urges or qualities to others

Rationalization

Justifying one’s actions or feelings with socially acceptable explanations rather than consciously acknowledging one’s true motives or desires

Regression

Retreating to a behavior pattern characteristic of an earlier stage of development

Five psychosexual stages of personality development

in Freud’s theory, age-related developmental periods in which the child’s sexual impulses are focused on different body areas and are expressed through the activities associated with those areas

First five years: Oral, anal, and phallic stages

Late Childhood: Latency Stages

Adolescence: Genital Stage

Fixation

The result of an unresolved developmental conflict is fixation at a particular stage

Albert Bandura contribution

Bandura’s theory of personality, which emphasized the importance of conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism

Big-five theory

a trait theory of personality that identifies extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience as the fundamental building blocks of personality

Trait theories of personality (Allport, Cattell and Eysenck’s contributions)

Trait Theory: a theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions

Raymond Cattell believed that personality could be described in terms of 16 source traits, or basic personality factors. Each factor represents a dimension that ranges between two extremes.

Eysenck’s methods were similar to Cattell’s, but his conception of personality includes just three dimensions.

• Introversion-extraversion

• Neuroticism-emotional stability

• Psychoticism

Surface trait

personality characteristics or attributes that can be easily inferred from observable behaviors

Source trait

the broad, basic traits that are hypothesized to be universal and relatively few in number

Humanistic perspective in understanding personality

the view of personality that emphasizes the inherent goodness of people, human potential, self-actualization, the self-concept, and healthy personality development

The role of unconditional positive regard

In Carl Rogers’s theory, the child’s sense that they will be valued and loved even if they don’t conform to the standards and expectations of others; the child’s actualizing tendency is allowed its fullest expression

What are the MMPI and TAT tests?

TAT: a projective personality test that involves creating stories about ambiguous scenes

MMPI: a self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics and psychological disorders; used to assess both normal and disturbed populations

Stress, sources of stress and resilience

Stress: a negative emotional state occurring in response to events that are perceived as taxing or exceeding a person’s resources or ability to cope.

Stressors: events or situations that are perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging

Resilience: the ability to cope with stress and adversity, to adapt to negative or unforeseen circumstances, and to rebound after negative experiences

Cognitive Appraisal Model

a model of stress that emphasizes the role of an individual’s evaluation (appraisal) of events and situations and of the resources that they have available to deal with the event or situation

Stress response system (preparation for fight or flight)

Rapidly occurring chain of internal physical reactions that prepare people to either fight or take flight from an immediate threat

With the perception of a threat, the hypothalamus and lower brain structures activate the fight-or-flight response, which in turn stimulates the sympathetic nervous system

Walter Cannon’s contribution

The fight-or-flight response was first described by American physiologist Walter Cannon, who found that the fight-or-flight response involved both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system

Burnout

an unhealthy condition caused by chronic, prolonged work stress that is characterized by exhaustion, cynicism, and a sense of failure or inadequacy

Stress hormones

Catecholamines: which are hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that cause rapid physiological arousal and include adrenaline and noradrenaline

Corticosteroids: are hormones released by the adrenal cortex that play a key role in the body’s response to long-term stressors

Role of telomeres and telomerase

Telomeres are repeated, duplicate DNA sequences that are found at the very tips of chromosomes and that protect the chromosomes’ genetic data during cell division

An enzyme called telomerase has the capacity to add DNA to shortened telomeres, rebuilding and extending the length of telomeres

Hans Selye and the General adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Hans Selye’s term for the three-stage progression of physical changes that occur when an organism is exposed to intense and prolonged stress. The three stages are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion

GAS Stages

Alarm stage: Catecholamines are released by the adrenal medulla. Intense arousal occurs, and the body mobilizes internal physical resources to meet the demands of the stress-producing event.

Resistance stage: As the body tries to adapt to the continuing stressful situation, physiological arousal lessens but remains above normal. Because the stress response system is already taxed, resistance to new stressors is impaired.

Exhaustion stage: If the stress-producing event persists, the symptoms of the alarm stage reappear, only now irreversibly. The body’s energy reserves become depleted and adaptation begins to break down, leading to exhaustion, physical disorders, and, potentially, death

Relationship between stress and the immune system: explanatory factors

Highly stressful events were associated with reduced immune system functioning

Immune system functioning was also affected by more common stresses. For example, the stress caused by the end or disruption of important interpersonal relationships impairs immune function, putting people at greater risk for health problems

Psychological stress increases the length of time it takes for a wound to heal

What is psychoneuroimmunology

the scientific study of the connections among psychological processes (psycho-), the nervous system (-neuro-), and the immune system (-immunology)