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What were Schachter’s seven sins of memory?
Transcience
Absent-mindedness
Blocking
Misattribution
Suggestibility
Bias
Persistence
The first three relate to issues around forgetting, the next three relate to distortion or inaccuracy and the final one to ‘pathological’ remembering
What are flashbulb memories?
Distinct, vivid, detailed memories, often
for some sort of public event
2015 Paris attacks (Gandolphe & El
Haj, 2016)
• Death of Princess Diana (Hornstein,
Brown & Mulligan, 2003)
• 9/11 bombings (Talarico and Rubin,
2003)
• Resignation of Margaret Thatcher
(Conway et al., 1994)
Participants report very strong memories
about which they are extremely confident
• They report details like who told them,
where, ongoing event, emotional
responses (self and other) and any
consequences
• Memories for crimes may be like FB
memories
What did Diamond, Armson and Levine (2020) discover about forgetting over time?
They reported that what was recalled was
accurate (c. 94%), but that quality and
details diminished (especially as age and
retention interval increased)
What does the working memory consists of?
Central executive
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Episodic buffer
Phonological loop
What are slave systems?
Visuo-spatial sketchpad and
phonological loop store a limited
amount information
Information is stored here in a
temporal and serial fashion
Allows rehearsal for the retention
of information
What did Baddeley and Hitch (1974) discover about the phonological loop?
Responsible for ‘inner speech’
• Measured using memory span
tasks
• Most people can remember 7±2
items (though debated)
Unless attended to and ‘rehearsed’
information may be lost very quickly
What case is an example of transience?
Patient HM was unable to remember
information for more than a few
seconds
• Could retain some information from
the past, but unable learn anything
new
• HM had drastic brain surgery to
reduce epilepsy
• non-functioning hippocampus
• the hippocampus must be crucial
in memory formation
• Not where memories are stored,
but involved in the gradual
transition from STM to LTM
Why does absent mindedness occur?
Absent mindedness occurs due to paying
insufficient attention at encoding (Reason
& Mycielska, 1982), or encoding has been
only superficial (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
How does blocking differ?
Different from transience
The information has been encoded
The information is still stored (has
not been ‘lost’)
Different from absent-mindedness
The information has been encoded
You are often able to retrieve partial
information
Bjork & Handal (1995) reported inhibitory effects of practice on recall, leading to blocking what did they find?
Participants observed slides of a ‘crime scene’
• They were asked repeated questions about some items from some
categories (e.g. clothes), but some items from that category were not asked
about at all
• Some categories were not asked about at all (e.g. books)
• In later tests participants recalled more about items from non-asked about categories than they did about the non-retrieved items from ‘asked about’ categories – successful retrieving of some items blocks access to related
items
How did Bernstein, Laney, Morris, & Loftus (2005) demonstrate false memories?
228 participants given false memories
of a negative experience with an
unhealthy food
“You felt ill after eating strawberry ice-
cream”
Believers showed more avoidance of
strawberry ice cream at test (c. 20%)
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
How fast were the cars going when they ______ each other?
• Smashed: 40.8 mph
• Collided: 39.3 mph
• Bumped 38.1 mph
• Hit 34 mph
• Contacted 31.8