Comprehensive Programming, Algorithms, and Database Key Terms

Program

A computer program is a set of instructions that tells a computer what tasks to perform and how to execute them.

Input

Data from a file, keyboard, touchscreen, network, or other source.

Process

The computation that a program performs on data such as addition, subtraction, and others.

Output

Where the program puts the data, such as a file, screen, network, or other location.

Algorithm

An unambiguous, executable, and terminating specification of a way to solve a problem.

Computational problem

Specifies an input, a question about the input that can be answered using a computer, and the desired output.

NP-complete

A set of problems for which no known efficient algorithm exists.

Algorithm time efficiency

The number of calculations required to solve a problem.

Problem solving

Creating a methodical solution to a given task.

Pseudocode

A high-level description of the actions of a program or algorithm, using a mixture of English and informal programming language syntax.

Data types

The type of values that can be stored in a program, such as numbers (integers), strings, and Booleans.

Operators

Symbols used to perform operations on values, such as addition, subtraction, and comparison.

Control structures

Statements used to control the flow of a program, such as if-else statements, loops, and function calls.

Libraries and frameworks

Collections of pre-written code that can be used to perform common tasks and speed up development.

Paradigms

The programming style or philosophy used in the language, such as procedural, object-oriented, or functional.

Variable

A named storage location in memory that holds a value or data.

Function

A self-contained block of code that performs a specific task and can be called from other parts of the program.

Control flow

The order in which statements are executed in a program, including loops and conditional statements.

Syntax

The set of rules that govern the structure and format of a programming language.

Comment

A piece of text in a program that is ignored by the compiler or interpreter, used to add notes or explanations to the code.

Debugging

The process of finding and fixing errors or bugs in a program.

IDE

Integrated development environment, a software application that provides a comprehensive development environment for coding, debugging, and testing.

Operator

A symbol or keyword that represents an action or operation to be performed on one or more values or variables.

Statement

A single line or instruction in a program that performs a specific action or operation.

System programming

Developing operating systems, device drivers, and other low-level software.

Scripting

Automating repetitive tasks or performing system administration tasks.

Prototyping

Quickly creating prototypes or proof-of-concept applications due to its simplicity and speed of development.

High-level programming language

A programming language that provides an abstract view of a computer and allows programmers to focus on their problem domain.

Argument

A value supplied in a function or method call, or one of the values combined by an operator.

String

A sequence of characters.

Folder

A structure on a disk that can hold files or other folders; also called a directory.

Directory

A structure on a disk that can hold files or other directories; also called a folder.

Python shell

A user interface that can be used to interact with the Python interpreter.

Prompt

A string that tells the user to provide input.

Type

A named set of values and the operations that can be carried out with them.

Primitive type

A data type provided by the language itself.

User-defined data types

A data type, not provided by the language, that is defined by the user.

Integer

A number that cannot have a fractional part.

Floating-point number

A number that can have a fractional part.

Number literal

A constant value in a program that is explicitly written as a number.

Case sensitive

Distinguishing upper- and lowercase characters.

Reserved word

A word that has a special meaning in a programming language and therefore cannot be used as a name by the programmer.

Constant

A value that cannot be changed by a program.

Magic number

A number that appears in a program without explanation.

Parameters

Variables in a function's definition.

Encapsulation

Bundling data (attributes) and methods (functions) that operate on the data within one unit, eg, a class.

Abstraction

Hiding the complex implementation details and exposing only the necessary parts.

Inheritance

Mechanism to create a new class using details of an existing class without modifying it.

Polymorphism

Ability to define a single interface or method that can be used with different data types or classes.

Class attributes

Attributes that are shared among all instances of a class.

Instance attributes

Attributes that are unique to each instance.

Instance methods

Operate on an instance of the class.

Class methods

Operate on the class itself, not on instances.

Static methods

Do not operate on class or instance; used as utility functions.

Runtime complexity

A function, T(N), that represents the number of constant time operations performed by the algorithm on an input of size N.

Best case

The scenario where the algorithm does the minimum possible number of operations.

Worst case

The scenario where the algorithm does the maximum possible number of operations.

Hypothesis

States a possible cause of a problem.

Test

A procedure typically with two possible results that either validate or invalidate a hypothesis.

Hierarchy

Object can be decomposed into sub-objects.

Binary search

Divides an item into two halves, runs a test to decide in which half something lies, and repeats the binary search on that half.

Bug

A problem's cause in a program.

Visual inspection

A basic debugging process where you look at each statement one-by-one to try to find a bug.

Debug output statements

Outputs that help determine whether the preceding statement has the bug.

Syntax errors

These occur when the Python parser is unable to understand a line of code.

Runtime errors

These errors occur during the execution of a program.

Semantic errors

These are the most insidious errors as the program runs without crashing, but it doesn't produce the expected output.

Linting errors

These are not necessarily errors but rather suggestions for best practices or coding standards.

Data

Is numeric, textual, visual, or audio information that describes real-world systems.

Analog

Encoded as continuous variations on various physical media.

Digital

Encoded as zeros and ones on electronic and magnetic media.

DBMS

Database management system is software that reads and writes data in a database.

Query

A request to retrieve or change data in a database.

Query language

A specialized programming language, designed specifically for database systems.

Database administrator

Responsible for securing the database system.

Database designer

Determines the format of each data element and the overall database structure.

Database programmer

Develops computer programs that utilize a database.

Database user

Is a consumer of data in a database.

Query processor

Interprets queries, creates a plan to modify the database or retrieve data, and returns query results to the application.

Query optimization

To ensure the most efficient instructions are executed on the data.

Storage manager

Translates the query processor instructions into low-level file-system commands that modify or retrieve data.

Transaction manager

Ensures transactions are properly executed and prevents conflicts between concurrent transactions.

Log

A file containing a complete record of all inserts, updates, and deletes processed by the database.

Catalog/Data dictionary

A directory of tables, columns, indexes, and other database objects.

Relational database

Stores data in tables, columns, and rows, similar to a spreadsheet.

SQL

Stands for Structured Query Language and includes statements that read and write data, create and delete tables, and administer the database system.

Big data

Massive volumes of data resulting from the growth of the internet in the 1990s.

NoSQL

Stands for 'not only SQL' referring to non-relational systems that are optimized for big data.

Open source

Software that anyone can inspect, copy, and modify with no licensing fee.

Database model

A conceptual framework for database systems, with three parts: data structures, operations, and rules.

Relational model

A database model based on a tabular data structure.

Set

An unordered collection of elements enclosed in braces.

Tuple

An ordered collection of elements enclosed in parentheses.

Relational rules

Part of the relational model and govern data in every relational database.

Business rules

Based on business policy and specific to a particular database.

Data Definition Language (DDL)

Defines the structure of the database.

Data Query Language (DQL)

Retrieves data from the database.

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Manipulates data stored in a database.

Data Control Language (DCL)

Controls database user access.

Data Transaction Language (DTL)

Manages database transactions.