CH 23

What did Martin Luther attack in 1517?

The sale of indulgences and corruption in the Roman Catholic Church.

What was the significant outcome of the Protestant Reformation by the mid-sixteenth century in Germany?

Half the German people adopted Lutheran Christianity.

Which movement was sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for a divorce?

The English Reformation.

What was the purpose of the Council of Trent (1545-1563)?

To direct reform of the Roman Catholic Church.

Who founded the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) in 1540?

Ignatius Loyola.

What was the main cause of witch-hunts in Europe during the sixteenth century?

Religious conflicts of the Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship.

What major conflict did the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) begin as?

A local conflict in Bohemia.

What was Charles V unable to achieve during his reign as Holy Roman Emperor?

Establish a unified state.

How did the Reformation increase royal power in England, France, and Spain?

It gave access to the wealth of the Church.

What characterized constitutional states like England and the Netherlands?

Limited powers, individual rights, and representative institutions.

What was the model of royal absolutism represented by Louis XIV of France?

The court at Versailles.

What did the Peace of Westphalia (1648) establish?

A system of independent sovereign states.

How did early capitalism affect rural society in early modern Europe?

Improved material standards and increased financial independence of rural workers.

What did Adam Smith argue about profit-making in society?

Society would prosper if individuals pursued their own interests.

What was a key change in family dynamics due to early capitalism?

The nuclear family became more independent economically, socially, and emotionally.

What did Nicolaus Copernicus suggest about the universe in 1543?

That the sun was the center of the universe.

What was Galileo Galilei known for in the Scientific Revolution?

His telescopic discoveries including the moons of Jupiter and sunspots.

What did Isaac Newton's 'Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy' symbolize?

The scientific revolution and the use of direct observation and mathematical reasoning.

What concept did Enlightenment thinkers seek to understand in relation to human society?

Natural laws that govern human society.

What did Voltaire champion during the Enlightenment?

Religious liberty and individual freedom.

How did the Enlightenment impact organized religion?

It weakened its influence and encouraged secular values based on reason.