Midterm Identification Terms-Full set

HIST 152 full set of terms

Columbian Exchange

refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, people and diseased between the Old and New worlds after Christopher Columbus’s voyages in 1492. It involved Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans and led to major demographic and ecological changes across the Atlantic worlds. This took place from the 15th century onward, centered around the Americas, Europe, and Africa. It is important because it transformed global populations, economies, and environments.

Conquistadores

Spanish soldiers and explorers who conquered vast American territories during the 16th century. They invaded areas such as the Aztec and Inca Empires in Mexico and Peru, seeking wealth and spreading Christianity. Their conquests were brutal and sparked the creation of colonial societies in Latin America. They are central to understanding European imperialism and indigenous resistance.

Encomienda & Hacienda

Systems were Spanish colonial labor systems in the Americas starting in the early 1500s, where settlers exploited Indigenous labor and later African slaves for agriculture and mining. These systems developed mostly in Mexico, Central, and South America, particularly on plantations and estates. They reveal how colonial power structures societies for economic gain. Their legacy shows the roots of inequality and racial hierarchies in Latin America.

Mestizo Society

Refers to the mixed-race populations, particularly in Spanish colonies, resulting from unions between Europeans and Indigenous peoples from the 16th century onward. This primarily occurred in Mexico and South America. Mestizos became a large social class in colonial hierarchies. the term is key to understanding cultural blending and social structures in colonial Latin America.

Manila Galleons

Spanish trading ships that sailed from the Philippines to Mexico from 1565 to 1815, linking Asia, the Americas, and Europe through global trade. They carried silver from the Americas to Asia and luxury goods like silk and spices in return. This route connected Spain’s colonies across the Pacific, centered in Manila and Acapulco. It illustrates the early globalization of commerce.

Silver

especially from mines in Potosí (modern Bolivia), became the foundation of global trade in the 16th-17th centuries. Spanish colonizers used forced Indigenous labor to extract silver, which funded European empires and fueled commerce with Asia. It played a critical role in the rise of capitalism and global economic integration. The silver trade helps explain the rise of European power and the exploitation of colonized peoples.

Atlantic Slave Trade

was the forced migration of over 12 million Africans to the Americas from the 16th-19th centuries, driven by European demand for plantation labor. It mainly affected West Africa, the Caribbean, and Brazil. Slaves were captured, sold, and transported through the brutal Middle Passage across the Atlantic. This trade was essential to the development of the Atlantic economy and caused the African diaspora, a global spread of African cultures and peoples.

Plantations

large agricultural estates often growing sugar, cotton, or tobacco, were established across the Caribbean and the Americas from the 16th century onward. These were operated through slave labor, first Indigenous and later African. Plantations generated immense wealth for European powers. Their significance lies in how they shaped global capitalism, race relations, and colonial economies.

Engenhos

were Portuguese sugar mills in colonial Brazil from the 16th century onward, relying heavily on enslaved African labor. These mills were central to Brazil’s economy and the global sugar trade. They were often deadly and harsh environments for laborers. Engenho show how colonial industries operated and contributed to European wealth.

Treaty of Tordesillas

was a 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal, dividing the non-European world between them along a meridian line west of the Cape Verde islands. It was negotiated by the Pope to prevent conflict over overseas claims. This treaty influenced colonization patters, giving Brazil to Portugal and the rest of the Americas to Spain. It’s key to understanding how European empires carved up the world.

Volta do Mar

was a navigational technique developed by Portuguese sailors in the 15th century that used wind and currents to sail from Africa or the Americas back to Europe. This method allowed successful oceanic voyages and shaped maritime exploration. It enabled the rise of European global empires. It’s important for understanding the technological foundations of global trade and empire.

Joint-Stock companies

Business ventures that pooled investors’ money to fund overseas colonization in the 17th-18th centuries. These companies operated across the Indian Ocean, Asia, and the Americas, often with governmental support. They laid the groundwork for modern capitalism and imperialism. Their structure made global trade and colonization profitable and sustainable.

Epidemic Diseases

such as small pox and measles devastated Indigenous populations in the Americas after European contact, beginning in the late 15th century. These diseases spread rapidly due to lack of immunity, killing millions. Epidemics helped Europeans conquer the Americas with less resistance. This is crucial to understanding the demographic collapse and cultural loss in colonized societies

Middle Passage

refers to the horrific sea voyage that enslaved Africans endured from West Africa to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade. This journey, which occurred mainly between the 16th-19th centuries, resulted in the death of millions due to inhumane conditions. It was centered in the Atlantic Ocean and connected African ports with American plantations. It’s essential to understanding the brutality of the slave trade and the foundations of racialized labor systems.

African Diaspora

describes the global spread of African peoples and cultures due to forced migration through the Atlantic slave trade. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, millions of Africans were displaced to the Americas, Europe, and parts of Asia. The diaspora has had a lasting cultural, political, and demographic impact across the Atlantic world. It’s important for understanding the roots of modern racial diversity and cultural fusion.

Absolutist States/Absolute Monarchies

Governments where kings held centralized power such as, Louis XIV of France in the 17th century. These developed across Europe as monarchs tried to control nobility and religion. They shaped European politics and led. To resistance movements. They contrast sharply with later constitutional states ore constitutional monarchies.

Capitalism

Began developing in early modern Europe, especially the 16-18th centuries, as trade, investments, and profit became central to economic systems. It emerged in places like the Netherlands and Britain. Capitalism changed how wealth was generated and distributed, encouraging global trade and colonization. It remains a dominant economic model today.

Thirty Years’ War

From 1618-1548, it was a devastating religious and political conflict fought mainly in the Holy Roman Empire (Germany). It involved Catholic and Protestant states and weakened European powers like Spain while strengthening France. The war caused massive destruction and population loss. It is important because it led to the Peace of Westphalia, which established the modern system of sovereign states.

Scientific Revolution

Occurred in Europe between the 16th-18th centuries, as people like Galileo and Newton challenged traditional knowledge through observation and reason. It transformed understanding of the universe and laid the groundwork for modern science. It happened mainly in Western Europe, especially in Italy, England, and France. It reshaped intellectual life and helped spark the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment

Was an 18th century intellectual movement that emphasized reason, individual rights, and liberty, led by thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke. It spread across Europe and the Atlantic world. Enlightenment ideas challenged traditional authority and inspired revolutions. It is essential to understanding the modern concepts of democracy, freedom, and human rights.

American Revolution

From 1775-1783, it was a colonial rebellion in North America against British rule, led by figures like George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. It resulted in the independence of the United States and inspired democratic ideas globally. It occurred in the 13 colonies, now the eastern US. It was a key turning points in challenging monarchies and spreading Enlightenment values.

French Revolution

From 1789 to 1799, it was a radical uprising against the ancient régime, or old feudal and aristocratic system of France, involving groups like the Estates General and later the gens de coulee in the colonies. It led to the execution of the king, rise of nationalism, and calls from liberty and equality. It took places across France and its colonies. It’s crucial to modern political history and revolutions around the world.

Haitian Revolution

From 1791-1804, it was the only successful slave revolt in history, where enslaved Africans in the French colony of Saint-Domingue overthrew their colonizers. Led by Toussaint Louverture, it established Haiti as the first Black republic. It followed Enlightenment and French Revolutionary ideals but applied them to colonial and racial oppression. It’s a major milestone in anti-colonial and anti-slavery history.

Liberalism

Is a political and economic ideology that emphasizes individual rights, equality under the law, and limited government, involving thinkers like John Locke and later leaders during the Enlightenment and democratic revolutions. It emerged prominently in the 17th-18th centuries in Europe and North America, especially during events like the American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789). Liberalism called for constitutional governments, free speech, and protection of private property. It is important to world history because it helped shape modern democracies and inspired movement for civil liberties and political reform worldwide.

Nationalism

Is the belief that people who share a common language, culture, or history should form an independent nation, involving leaders like Giyuseppe Garibaldi in Italy and Otto von Bismarck in Germany. It gained strength in the 19th century across Europe, especially after the Napoleonic Wars and the Congress of Vienna (1815). Nationalism led to the unification of Italy and Germany and the eventually breakdown of multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. This ideology is important to world history because it redefined national borders, fueled independence movements, and contributed to both unity and conflict globally.

Serfdom

Was a system where peasants were bound to land and owed labor to landowners, common in medieval and early modern Europe and Russia. It declined in Western Europe by the 17th century but lasted in Russia until the 19th century. It shows social hierarchies that revolutions and reforms later challenged. It’s important for studying feudalism and economic inequality.

Spanish Inquisition

Was a religious court established in 1478 by Catholic monarchs in Spain to enforce Catholic orthodoxy and suppress heresy. It expanded to colonial territories and often targeted Jews, Muslims, and Protestants. It symbolizes the use of religion for political control. It’s significant for understanding religious intolerance and state power.

Protestant Reformation

began in 1517 when Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church’s practices in Germany, sparking a widespread religious movement. It fractured Christianity and led to the rise of the Protestant churches across Europe. It played a role in religious wars, political changes, and colonial missions. It reshaped European religious and political life.

Constitutional state/constitutional monarchy

Refers to a government in which monarchs share power with representation institutions, like Parliament in England after the Glorious Revolution (1688). This model developed in contrast to absolute monarchies, mainly in 17th & 18th century Western Europe. It was especially strong in England and the Netherlands. It’s important because it laid the groundwork for modern democracies and limited government power.

Peace of Westphalia

Was a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years’ war in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years’ war between Spain and the Dutch. It involved European powers like France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Sweden, and was negotiated in what is now Germany. The treaties introduced the idea of state sovereignty and non-interference in internal affairs. It’s significant as the foundation of the modern international state system.

Ancien Régime

Refers to the political and social system in France before the French Revolution in 1789, where power was held by the monarchy, aristocracy, and the Catholic Church. This system, led by kings like Louis XVI, emphasized inequality through the estates system. IT existed primarily in France but influenced other European monarchies. It is crucial for understanding what revolutionaries sought to overthrow in their push for equality and citizenship.

Estates General

Was the French representative assembly o the three estates: clergy (First), nobility (second), and commoners (third), which had not met for 175 years before being convened in 1789. Called by King Louis XVI during a financial crisis, it marked the start of the French Revolution. It met in France and became the platform for the Third Estates to demand reforms. It’s important because it represents the political awakening of the common people and the beginning of revolutionary action.

Gens de Couleur (“people of color”)

Were free people of mixed African and European descent in French colonies like Saint-Dominguez (Haiti) in the 18th century. Although not enslaved, they faced racial discrimination and were excluded from full rights. Their frustrations contributed to the tensions leading to the Haitian Revolution. They are significant in showing how race, class, and colonial power clashed in revolutionary movement.

Ming Dynasty

From 1368 to 1644, it was a Chinese imperial dynasty that restored native Han Chinese rule after the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. It expanded Chinese power, rebuilt the Great Wall, and promoted Confucianism and a centralized bureaucracy. They dynasty was based in China and emphasized stability and cultural pride. It’s important because it reestablished strong governance and launched early maritime exploration under Zheng He.

Qing Dynasty

From 1644-1911, it followed the Ming and was established by the Manchus from northeast Asia, ruling over a multiethnic empire including China, Tibet, and Mongolia. It maintained the Confucian civil service system while adapting to new global pressures. Despite being foreign rulers, the Qing preserved traditional Chinese Institutions. They represented the last imperial dynasty of China and help explain modern Chinese nationalism.

Civil Service Examinination

System was a merit-based method of selecting officials in imperial china, especially during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Based on Confucian texts like the Analects of Confucius, it tested candidates’ knowledge of ethics, politics, and literature. The system was centered in China and influenced Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. It shows how ideas—not just birth—could define social status and government rules.

Analects of Confucius

Is a collection of teachings by the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551-479 BCE) emphasizing moral conduct, respect for hierarchy, and education. Though written earlier, it remained central to East Asian thought of governance for centuries, especially during the Ming and Qing. It was studied across East Asia, particularly in China, Korea, and Japan. It is crucial for understanding Confucianism’s deep influence on East Asian cultures and politics.

“Son of Heaven”

Was the title used by Chinese emperors, especially in the Ming and Qing periods, to signify their divine right to rule. This concept tied the emperor’s legitimacy to cosmic order and moral behavior. It was central to the political ideology of imperial China. It shows how Chinese rulers combined spiritual and political authority.

Ukiyo, or “floating worlds”

Refers to the urban pleasure districts in Edo-period japan. (1600-1868), filled with kabuki theaters, tea houses, and courtesans. It reflected a growing urban culture and artistic expression in placed like Edo (Tokyo), Kyoto, and Osaka. Ukiyo challenged traditional Confucian values by celebrating individual pleasure and beauty. It’s significant for understanding cultural shift and the emergence of vibrant middle class in Japan.

Sengoku Period

From 1467 to 1603, it was a time of civil war and social upheaval in Japan, marked by competing feudal lords (daimyos) and constant military conflict. It ended with the rise of the Shogun, a military dictator who unified Japan under the Tokugawa Shogunate, This period occurred throughout Japan and led to the long peace of the Edo Period. It’s important for showing how centralized rule replaced feudal chaos.

Shogun

Was the title of Japan’s military ruler, especially under the Tokugawa SHogunate (1600-1868), where the emperor was a figurehead and the shogun held real power. Based in Edo (modern Tokyo), the Tokugawa shoguns enforced social order, isolationist policies, and stability. The shogunate system controlled Japan for over two centuries. It illustrates the unique structure of Japanese feudalism and Political control.

Ottoman Empire

was a vast Muslim empire founded by Turkish warriors known as Ghazis, expanding from Anatolia into Southeast Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa from the 14th-20th century. Its capital was Istanbul, formerly Constantinople, which it captured in 1453. The Ottomans practiced Sunni Islam and created a strong centralized state with religious tolerance in some areas. The empire was a major political and cultural force in global history

Safavid Empire

Founded in the early 16th century in Persia (modern Iran), was a major Islamic dynasty that adopted Shiism as the state religion. It often clashed with the Sunni Ottomans, creating a lasting religious and political divide in the Islamic world. The Safavids helped shape Iranian identify and Shia Islam. They are crucial for understanding religious conflicts in the Middle East

Mughal Empire

Established in the 16th century by Muslim rulers of Central Asian descent, ruled over much of the Indian subcontinent. The empire blended Persian, Islamic, and Indian cultures and oversaw a flourishing of architecture, trade, and art. A symbol of this era is the Taj Mahal, a stunning white marble tomb build by Emperor Shah Jahan in the 17th century. The Mughal Empire is vital for understanding cultural syncretism, imperial power, and. Religious tolerance in South Asia.

Ghazi

refers to Muslim warriors, especially in the Ottoman Empire, who fought to expand Islamic territory. The term was most prominent in the 14th-15th centuries as Turkish leaders like Osman and his successors conquered lands in Anatolia and Eastern Europe. These warriors helped establish and legitimize the Ottoman state. Ghazis are crucial to understanding how religion and warfare were linked in the rise of Islamic empires

Istanbul

Became the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453 after the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II. Formerly a Christian Byzantine capital, it was transformed into a powerful Islamic and cultural center. It served as a political and trade hub between Europe and Asia. Its significance lies in its strategic and symbolic role in both Christian and Islamic histories.

Taj Mahal

Is a magnificent white marble mausoleum built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in Agra, India, during the 17th century to honor his wife Mumtaz Mahal. The structure combines Islamic, Persian, and Indian architectural styles. It was completed around 1653 during the height of the Mughal Empire. It’s a symbol of imperial wealth, love, and the cultural fusion of early modern South Asia.

Sunni

Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, followed by the majority of Muslims worldwide, which believes that leadership of the Muslim community should have passed to the most qualified individual after Prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. Sunni Muslims historically supported leaders like Abu Bakr, the first caliph, and this branch spread widely across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia under empires like the Umayyads and Ottomans. Sunni-majority regions include Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, and Indonesia. It’s important because its rivalry with Shiism shaped political and religious conflict in Islamic history.

Shiism

Or Shia Islam, is a major branch of Islam that believes leadership should have stayed within the Prophet Muhammad’s family, particularly with his cousin and son-in-law Ali. It developed after a political split in the 7th century and became dominant in Persia under the Safavid Empire in the 16th century, which made it the state religion of Iran. Shia populations are found in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, and parts of South Asia. Shiism is significant for understanding religious identity, conflict, and state formation in the Islamic world, especially in contrast with Sunni Powers.