Physiology Final Exam

Study guide answered with slides and exams. (E: is an exam question)

E: Physiology definition

study of normal organismal functioning and its component parts

E: Process explains the __

“how”

mechanistic approach

examines the process

E: function explains the __

“why”

Teleological approach

starts from end product and reasons backwards to explain things based on end purpose

E: Steps of response loop:

stimulus, receptor, input signal, integrating center, output signal, target, response, feedback loop

E: Most enzymes take to what protein structure?

Tertiary structure

4 levels of protein structures

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

Primary structure

linear sequence of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

secondary structure

local folding patterns formed by hydrogen bonds (alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets)

Tertiary structure

overall three-dimensional shape of single protein chain

Quaternary structure

arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains into single functional protein

E: The pH of a solution is 9.5 and you want the solution to be at pH 8.0, you should add what to the solution?

more acid

E: Four major biomolecule groups

lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleotides

lipids are __ and therefore not very water soluble

nonpolar

glycerol

simple 3-carbon molecules that makes up backbone of most lipids

E: Which monosaccharide is part of every disaccharide?

glucose

E: Biomolecules can store potential energy in the form of free energy. Where is this energy stored?

in their covalent bonds

E: which is more likely to cross a cell membrane by simple diffusion: fatty acid molecule or glucose molecule?

fatty acid

General structure of carbohydrates

for each carbon there are two hydrogens and one oxygen

Proteins are made of __ and linked together by __

amino acids; peptide bonds

T/F: Chemicals tend to move from area of high concentration to low concentration

True

chemicals direction of movement is based on

energy

High concentration → low concentration

no energy required

Low concentration → high concentration

energy required

Osmosis is …

movement of water from area with low solute concentration to an area with high solute concentration

Osmosis rule

“water goes where the party(solute) goes”

lumen

hollow space or cavity inside a tubular organ or structure in body

Organelles

carry out cellular functions

Inclusions

store materials or cellular byproducts

E: amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 L of water by 1° C ?

one Kilocalorie and one Calorie

one Calorie = one

kilocalorie

endergonic reactions

require an input of energy and products contact more energy than reactants

exergonic reaction

releases energy and products contain less energy than reactants

enzymes play a role in the __ part of a chemical reaction

activation energy

E: enzymes reduce what part of a chemical reaction?

activation energy

Molecules that can freely pass through cell memebrane:

• oxygen

• carbon dioxide

• nitrogen

• nonpolar molecules

Molecules that require transporters to pass through cell membrane:

• ions: Na+, K+, Ca2+

• glucose

• amino acids

• water

• large polar molecules

E: the sodium-potassium-pump works by pumping _ out of the cell and _ into the cell for every _

3 Na+, 2 K+, ATP

E: is the sodium-potassium-pump a symporter, antiporter, or uniporter?

antiporter

How does sodium-potassium-pump work?

3 Na+ out, 2 K+ in, and 1 ATP used

Transducer

converts a stimulus into an electrical signal that nervous system can interpret (aka. translator)

E: what form of transport is illustrated at apical membrane of cell in image?

secondary active transport

Primary active transport

uses ATP directly

Primary transport example

Na+/K+ pump

Secondary active transport

borrows energy from stored ion (Na+) made by primary transport

Tertiary active transport

uses gradient from secondary transport

E: Is the transporter on apical membrane in figure a symporter, antiporter, or uniporter?

Symporter

Uniporter moves__ type of molecule in__ direction

one; one

symporter moves__ substances in __ direction

two or more; same direction

antiporter moves __ substances in __ direction

two or more; opposite directions

__ are neurons that connect sensory neurons to motor neurons

Interneurons

where is the trigger zone located?

axon hillock

grey matter

• contains cell bodies, dendrites, and interneurons

• responsible for processing info

• little myelin

white matter

• contains myelinated axons

• responsible for sending signals

pineal gland

small endocrine gland that produces melatonin to regulate circadian rhythm

cerebrum

integrating center for voluntary movement

proprioception

body’s ability to sense the position

How does proprioception work?

• proprioceptors detect changes in muscle length, tension, and joint position

• send signals through sensory neurons (afferent neurons)

• cerebellum process information

• brain sends signals through motor neurons (efferent neurons)

main proprioceptors

muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, and joint receptors

small receptive field

higher sensitivity / better ability to tell where stimulus occurred

where are small receptive fields

fingertips and lips

Large receptive field

lower sensitivity / less precise localization

where are large receptive fields

back and legs

what does somatic motor branch of the PNS control?

voluntary movements of skeletal muscle

What neurotransmitter does the somatic motor branch of PNS release?

acetylcholine

sympathetic nervous system

• short preganglionic neurons

• long postganglionic neurons

• fight or flight

parasympathetic nervous system

• long preganglionic neurons

• short postganglionic neurons

• rest and digest

skeletal muscle

attach to bones, control movement, and are striated

cardiac muscle

only in heart, involuntary control, and is striated

smooth muscle

primary muscle of internal organs and tubes and lacks striation

Sliding filament theory steps

1. ACh is released from somatic motor neuron and initiates action potential

2. Calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum and binds to troponin

3. Troponin moves tropomyosin to allow myosin to bind to actin

4. cross-bridge is formed to allow for power stroke movement

why is there a latent period between muscle AP and muscle twitch?

time needed for excitation-contraction coupling to occur

Monosynaptic reflex

fastest type of reflex that has one synapse between sensory and motor neurons

polysynaptic reflex

reflex that has two or more interneurons between sensory and motor neurons

Monosynaptic reflex example

patellar (knee-jerk) reflex

polysynaptic reflex example

Withdrawal (flexor) reflex

How do muscles relax?

• ACh stops releasing

• Ca2+ is pumped back into SR

• Tropomyosin blocks actin

• Cross bridge fails

• muscle returns to resting state

where is the heart located?

thoracic cavity

Three layers of the heart:

• pericardium - outside, double-layer

• myocardium - thick contracting muscle

• endocardium - inner lining

Atrioventricular valves location

between atria and ventricles

Semilunar valves location

between ventricles and arteries

What prevents blood from flowing backwards?

AV and semilunar valves

Blood flow through heart

S/I vena cava → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary arteries → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → bicuspid valve → left ventricle → aortic valve → aorta

baroreceptors

sense changes in blood pressure based off stretching

where are baroreceptors located?

carotid sinus and aortic arch

Arteries are

PRESSURE reservoirs

Veins are

VOLUME reservoirs

angiogenesis

process of forming new blood vessels from existing blood vessels

How is angiogenesis initiated?

tissue experience low oxygen levels → cells respond by activating hypoxia-inducible factors that release vascular endothelial growth factor → blood vessels grow

what are erythrocytes?

red blood cells

what are thrombocytes?

platelets

five white blood cells

• neutrophils

• eosinophils

• basophils

• lymphocytes

• monocytes

where are the lungs located?

thoracic cavity

what surrounds the lungs?

pleura (visceral and parietal layer)

Visceral pleura

inner layer that directly covers the surface of lung

parietal pleura

outer layer that lines the inside of the thoracic cavity and rib cage

E: During gas exchange, cellular Pco2 at tissues is higher or lower than Pco2 in systemic capillaries?

higher

E: Two classes of chemoreceptors we learned about are peripheral chemoreceptors and central chemoreceptors. What does each detect?

PC detects Pco2 in arteries and CC detects Pco2 in cerebrospinal fluid

E: Hypoxia denotes too little oxygen in your _ while hypercapnia denotes too much carbon dioxide in _

tissue ; blood