Unit 7

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

instinct

a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

homeostasis

a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger

arcuate nucleus

area of the hypothalamus that secretes appetite-stimulating hormones

ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by the hypothalamus

insulin

A hormone produced by the pancreas that controls blood glucose

leptin

Protein hormone secreted by fat cells that causes the brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

PYY

digestive tract hormone that sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" may be set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy output

neophobia

fear of new things

obesity

a body mass index (BMI) measurement of 30 or higher

affiliation need

the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group

anxiety

constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection

avoidance

feeling such discomfort over getting close to others that avoidant strategies are used to maintain distance

ostracism

deliberate social exclusion of individuals or groups

self-disclosure

sharing our joys, worries, and weaknesses

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas; for control, and for attaining a high standard

grit

passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

emotion

a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

spillover effect

the tendency of arousal to spill over from one event to the next

Robert Zajonc theory

the theory that we have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our conscious interpretation of a situation

Joseph LeDoux theory

the theory that simple likes, dislikes, and fears bypass the cortex and follow a "low" road pathway to form an emotion

Richard Lazarus theory

the theory that emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous, whether we truly know it or not

polygraph

a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration, heart rate, and breathing changes) accompanying emotion

Duchenne smile

genuine smile

empathy

identifying with others and appraising a situation as they do

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

behavior feedback effect

the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others' thoughts, feelings, and actions

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

stressor

event that we appraise as threatening or challenging

stress reaction

physical and emotional response to a stressor

acculturative stress

stress that results from the pressure of adapting to a new culture

cortisol

stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion

telomeres

DNA pieces at the end of chromosomes that when too short, cannot divide and ultimately die

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

psychoneuroimmunology

the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

catharsis

the idea that "releasing" aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

positive psychology

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective well-being (for example, physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life.

adaption-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

neophobia

dislike of unfamiliar things.

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastery of skills or ideas, for control, and for attaining a high standard.

two-factor theory

the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

spillover effect

arousal can spill over from one event to the next, influencing our response.

Robert Zajonc theory

We have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our conscious interpretation of a situation.

Richard Lazarus theory

Emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous, whether we truly know it or not.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

polygraph

a machine used in attempts to detect lies that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.

display rules

Cultures differ in the amount of emotion expressed.

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

telomeres

DNA pieces at the ends of chromosomes; can shorten rapidly when under stress.

tend-and-befriend response

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Type A

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives.

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality.

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

regression

retreating to an earlier psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixed.

reaction formation

switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.

projection

disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

displacement

shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.

sublimation

transferring of unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives.

Neo-Freudians

Adopted Freud's interviewing techniques and accepted his basic ideas about personality structures, the importance of the unconscious, the childhood roots of personality, and the relationship between anxiety and defense mechanisms.

inferiority complex

Deals with our struggle to overcome childhood inferiority feelings that trigger our drive for superiority and power.

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.