Religious studies-Philosophy of religion

Inductive Argument

An argument based on evidence that comes from observations and experience; an argument constructed on possibly true premises reaching a logically possoble and persuasive conclusion

A priori

Without, or prior to, an experience; used of an argument, such as the ontological argument which is based on acquired knowledge, independent of, or prior to, experience

A posteriori

relating to or derived by reasoning from known or observed facts

Cosmological Argument

an argument for the existence of God that claims that all things in nature depend on something else for their existence (i.e., are contingent), and that the whole cosmos must therefore itself depend on a being that exists independently or necessarily.

Aquinas' First Way

A form of cosmological argument presented by Aquinas, said to be from 'motion'. By 'motion', Aquinas means 'change' from the potential to actual state of something. Such change must be caused by something that is already actual. If the cause was previously potential, then it must in turn have been caused to become actual. There must be a 'first cause' of change in this sequence, a cause that is not itself changed from actual to potential. This is God.

Aquinas' Second Way - Causation

P1. There is an order of efficient causes (causal principle: everything has a cause)

P2. Nothing can be the cause of itself

P3. Cannot be an infinite chain of causes or no first cause to cause the next one etc.

C1. Must be some first efficient cause which is not itself caused

C2. This first cause is God

Aquinas Third Way - Contingency

Things that exist, once did not and one day will stop to

If everything did not exist, there would be a time with nothing

Nothing can come from nothing, if nothing existed before then nothing should exist now

There must be a necessary being

Kalam Cosmological Argument

1. Whatever begins to exist has a cause.

2. The universe began to exist.

3. Therefore, the universe has a cause.

William Lane Craig additions to the Kalam cosmological argument

" if the universe began to exist and the universe is caused, then the cause of the universe must be a personal being who freely chooses to create the world

Ontological argument

An argument that uses the idea of God to establish the reality of God

Deductive argument

An argument that relies on reason and logic; if the premises are true then the conclusion must be true

Anselm's Ontological Argument

1. If God exists only in the intellect, then we can conceive of a being greater than God.

2. It's not the case that we can conceive of a being greater than God.

3. So, it's not the case that God exists only in the intellect.

4. Either God exists in reality or God exists only in the intellect.

5. Therefore, God exists in reality.

Anselm, Proslogion (Ontological Argument)

"God is that which nothing greater can be conceived"

Proslogion 3

Premise 1: God is the best thing that can be concieved

P2: Contingent beings are inferior to necessary beings

P3: Becuase God is the best thing that can be concieved

P4: God exists neccesarily

Rene Descartes

Believed that humans have an innate knowledge of god from birth. We would not be able to conceive of such a being unless god out the idea into our nature at birth. God must have existed to give us this insight

Descartes' Mountain and Valley Analogy

A mountain cannot be a mountain without a valley and vice versa, they are inseparable and conceiving one implies the other must exist too. God can be conceived and implies God must exist too, we cannot think of God without thinking he exists.

Descartes triangle analogy

A defining predicate of a triangle is it having three sides. In the same way, existence is a predicate of god that we cannot think of Him without

Norman Malcolm's Ontological Argument

Necessary existence shows that God is different from all other beings, therefore it is a predicate. God is an unlimited being as it is greater than being a limited being.

Gaunilo's Objection to the Ontological Argument

- God can be substituted with the "perfect island," or any other such object, and still function

Kant's Objection to the Ontological Argument

existence is not a logical predicate. We don't imagine something differently if we know it exists.

Moral evil

Actions done by humans which cause suffering

Natural evil

Things which cause suffering but have nothing to do with humans

Theodicy

the theological question that tries to connect belief in God's justice with the reality that sometimes good people suffer unjustly and die

Epicurus and the problem of evil

"Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then he is not omnipotent. Is he able, but not willing? Then he is malevolent. Is he both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is he neither able nor willing? Then why call him God?" David Hume

Evidential Problem of Evil

The version of the problem of evil that claims that God's existence is improbable, given the existence of evil, especially suffering that seems pointless.

The inconsistent triad

An inconsistent triad is made up of 3 statements which cannot all be true at the same time.

J.L. Mackie -

God cannot be omnipotent and omnibenevolent if evil and suffering exist. If He were omniscient He would be aware of evil and suffering. If He were omnibenevolent He would not create/would prevent evil and suffering. If He were omnipotent He would have the power to remove evil and suffering. Either He does not exist, or He does not have the characteristics we traditionally attribute to him.

The paradox of omnipotence

'If God is all powerful, could he create something he couldn't control? If so, he is not omnipotent'

William Rowe (The Evidential Problem of Evil)

He bases his argument on evil which he calls 'intense human and animal suffering' that 'occurs on a daily basis' and 'is in great plenitude in our world'.

Gregory S. Paul

He argues that the death of so many innocent children postnatal and prenatal challenges the existence of God. He estimates over 50 billion children have died , and 300 billion prenatal deaths (both from natural and moral evil causes) have occurred. Millions of children suffer and die each year, these children too young to make decisions and choices about God, and they have no free will (so evil is not excusable on the basis of having free will). Such suffering should not be permissible by an all loving, all powerful God therefore his existence is unlikely.

Augustinian Theodicy

is the argument from the freewill of finite personal beings (angels, humanity): that is, the allpowerful,

good God created finite beings good and gave them freedom of choice. God

knew that some would choose against him (thus, God created the possibility of evil), but

he is not culpable for the free choices of finite beings against him. Therefore evil in the

universe is a consequence of personal choices of finite beings. Natural evil includes the

consequent physical judgments this has brought (Gen. 3).

Soil deciding theodicy

A term used to describe the kind of theodicy which proposes that evil and suffering allow people to make a personal choice about faith

Irenaean Theodicy (Soul Making)

- Soul making as we can develop our soul

- Humans created in the image and likeness of God so we have power to make own decisions

- We are in an immature, moral state but we have the potential for moral perfection.

Second order goods

Moral goods that result from a response to evil e.g. compassion.

John Hick's Soul-Making Theodicy

Our world is one where through free choices we can undergo spiritual growth, where the goal is to be fit for communion with God. We make a free choice of going from human animals to children of God

Challenges to Irenaean type theodicy

First order evils don't justify second order goods

Insensitive to those who have suffered greatly

John hicks universal salvation so seen as unjust by many

The scale of suffering is too great

Depend on the idea of an afterlife

An omnipotent god should not need to do things this way

Hick universal salvation

a God of love would not organise the universe in such a way that salvation was limited to only some people

Origen on the problem of evil

it isn't God's intention, but given that it does exist, God makes good to come out of it.