Alexander II

What was the population during the 19th century in Russia?

160 million in 1910

There was a rapid increase in population despite not industrialising→ likelihood of famine and poor wages, overcrowding in cities, poor living conditions and poor sanitation

What was the distribution of nationalities in Russia the 1800s?

50% were Russian, the rest were minorities

This disunion in nationalities led to a likelihood of prejudice, racism etc.

What was the distribution of social classes in Russia in the 1800s?

82% were peasants,12% were upper class

Lack of middle class (only 1.5%) led to major class divides and prevented industrialisation. There was no motivation to improve

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of size?

• Problems for mass communication (no railroads, poor roads)

• only 4 officials per 1000 people

• Lacked network of self-control

• Relied on Orthodox Church for infrastructure, less government-controlled

• Russian troops used 1500 times to supress local unrest

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of location?

• Russia’s European border were strategically weak and lacked natural borders/defences

• Occupied 2 continents

• Suitable agriculture in the East ran short

• Limited industrial modernisation

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of resources?

• Industrial development was hindered until 20th century

• significant in natural resources, diamonds and gold

• lavishly endowed natural resources but did not industrialise till 20th century because Russia’s terrain was harsh, making it inaccessible

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of Soil types?

Less areas suitable for agriculture (Russia’s 3 divisions (Tundra, Taiga and Steppe)

Tundra→

• Cannot support human life

• Trees cannot grow because subsoil is permanently frozen

• land hunger drove peasants into this area

• shrubs are the only form of natural vegetation

Taiga→

• Soil is boggy, marshy and lacking natural plant food

• Permafrost in the North

Steppe→

• Good areas for farming

• “Heart of Russia’s agriculture”

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of Russia’s climate?

• Development of international trade and naval warfare led to Russia realising they were disadvantaged because it only had 1 ice-free port

• Annual average temperature of -5

• Continental climate

What effects did Russia’s geography and climate have on Russia?

• Hindered Russia’s industrialisation

• Spontaneous industrial revolution wold be impossible as agriculture was too precious

• Regions worst suited for agriculture received the most rainfall

• Many droughts

• Poor harvests and yields compared to Europe (Europe 4X Russia)

• Farmers did not try to improve production due to lack of financial incentive, unpredictable weather, lack of communications, infertile lands and Church superstitions

• Frequent food shortages and famines (1891-91 famine killed 400k)

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of the Russian autocratic system?

There was no democracy, meaning any poor errors made by the Tsar would go unchallenged→ led to lack of improvement

Why was Russia hard to govern in terms of Alexander II’s personality?

Alexander II was sensitive, leading him to be indecisive in difficult situations→ hindered Russia’s development

Which war was happening during Alexander II’s ascension to the throne in 1855 and was Russia winning, and how did the war end?

Crimean War

• Russia was in a crisis, it was engaged in a War with the Ottoman Empire, Britain and France

• Russia had lost and this led to peace negotiations where Russia had to accept the Treaty of Paris 1856 which deprived Russia’s access to the Black Sea→ Russia no longer had access to ice-free ports

What was the Treaty of Paris 1856?

• Russia’s duty to protect Christians in the Ottoman Empire was given to other European powers

• Russia lost territory in the South West of its empire

• Russia banned from having a Black Sea fleet and forced to remove all naval fortifications in the area

What were the effects of the Crimean War and what were the reforms Russia needed?

• Showed Russia’s military and administrative inadequacies (poorly trained and equipped serf conscripts) → reform needed for better, modernised army

• Disrupted trade through closure of Black Sea port→ Needed alternative method of trade with other countries

• Provoked peasant uprisings→ new social system/ government needed to be implemented

• Russia and West not on good terms→ friendlier relations needed

• Improvement in communication and railway needed to transport goods around the country

• Development of Russia’s economy

Which areas were Alexander II’s domestic policies/reforms aimed at?

Legal position of serfs, local government, the army, education, censorship, justice, economy and the emancipation of the serfs

What were the political reasons for the domestic reforms of Alexander II?

• To maintain Tsarist autocracy

• End peasant unrest and protests concerning military conscriptions

• Prevent political/ thought groups opposing him

• Russian social structure seemed to not help the nobles→ lower income for the nobility

What were the economic reasons for the domestic reforms of Alexander II?

• Needed to catch up with Western Europe countries so Russia can get her powerful status back

• Serfdom seen as a brake to economic progression- prevented industrialisation, limited capital accumulation and kept internal market demand low

• Had to pay back 54 million roubles debt, and peasants don’t pay taxes

What were the moral and intellectual reasons for the domestic reforms of Alexander II?

• pressure for reform/ emancipation

• More westernised

• owning people seen as immoral

What was the nature of Alexander II’s government in terms of political organisation?

In 1855, autocracy meant there was no obligation to consult the Tsar over policies

• No national body chosen by the people

• Dominated by nobility, and Tsar did not need consent to pass laws, heavy reliance on the abilities of the Tsar

• Since 1802, Russia had a ministerial government (Ministers dealt with traditional concerns of finance, foreign affairs and justice)

• No cabinet and no prime minister (individual ministers reported to the Tsar alone so there was no discussion or interaction of ministers)

What was created in 1810 to act as a body to advise the Tsar?

State Council

Tsar appointed top members of the bureaucracy, but there was no obligation of the Tsar to listen to the State Council

What were 2 changes in central administration under Alexander II?

The Committee of Ministers was created in 1861→ ministries were connected to departments, had very specific responsibilities

Council of Ministers made to replace the Personal Chancery of Imperial ministry in 1861

What are the 3 elements of the changes in local administration under Alexander II?

• 2 tier system

• Zemstva

• Dumy

What was the 2 tier system?

Locally elected bodies were established to manage local affairs

Provisional Level→ 74% Nobles, 15% townsmen, 10% peasants (councils called Zemstva →less representative)

District Level→ 40% Nobles, 20% townsmen, 40% peasants (elected local councils called Zemstvo→ all classes could vote)

What was the Zemstva?

Locally elected councils created in 1864, elected on a narrow franchise (74% nobility)

They could impose local taxes on property, businesses etc.

Responsibilities included schools, healthcare, poor relief, prisons, roads etc.

What was the Dumy?

In 1870, the municipal statute issued that All towns and cities above a certain size should have their own elected ton councils (dumys)

These were to be organised on the same basis as the Zemstva

What was the relationship between the serfs and the Tsar?

• The serfs saw the Tsar as their “little father” who cared for them and protected their interest against the nobility

• Hardly any social mobility as the Tsar and the Orthodox Church were seen as being above the serfs

What was the life of a serf like?

• They were either state-owned (by the Tsar) or privately owned

• serfs divided by those who payed rent (they were allowed to practice trades (obrok) or those who paid through their labour and worked 3 days a week (barschina)

• Serfs belonged to local village commons (Mir) that was run by village elders

• Lords had complete authority of serfs

• Serfs liable to corporal punishment and conscription

• Serfs had a range of domestic/agricultural positions they could fill

In 1803, landowners were allowed to sell land to their peasants and grant them freedom. How many people did this before 1855?

only 100,000

What were 2 other early attempts to abolish serfdom and why didn’t they succeed?

• 1816-19 Baltic states abolished serfdom but had not granted land to their peasants

• 1847- A decree allowed serfs to purchase their freedom and land if an estate was sold at a public auction

Both ignored the fact that serfs had no money to do these methods

How was the emancipation of the serfs carried out?

March 1856- Alexander II asked a small group of nobles to come up with suggestions about how to emancipate the serfs

1857- formed a secret committee to look into this matter and appointed his brother in charge

1858-9- Alexander II made pro-emancipation speeches throughout Russia, inviting Provincial committees of nobles to send suggestions (he involved the nobility to have their support and prevent opposition)

1861- Emancipation of the serfs completed

When was the emancipation of the serfs?

1861

What was the first stage of emancipation? (1861-63)

• Serfs became legally free (could own property and marry)

• Still remained as property of their landlords

• They still had to farm the land they farmed before

• They still had to pay feudal dues to their landlords, but this couldn’t be altered by landlords

What was the second stage of emancipation? (1863 onwards)

• Peasants and landlords were to negotiate the terms of buying land subject to certain conditions

• Landlords had to sell 1/3 of their land and serfs had to buy (land lords could choose which third to give so they gave their least fertile land)

• All legalities between peasants and landlords were cut- they could no longer be punished for minor offences etc

• Peasants still had to make payments to the landlords

What was the third stage of emancipation? (Redemption operation)

• All economic ties between peasants and landlords were cut

• Government gave landlords immediate payments in full, compensation came in the form of state bonds

• Redemption payments of 49 years + 6% interest per year on peasants

• During this 49 years, land was owned by the mir, not the peasants, and they would distribute land for each peasant periodically

• After 49 years, peasants would have full legal ownership of the land

• Peasants remained legally tied to the mir and to the land; they could only leave if they were granted a passport by the mir

How was emancipation done for state peasants and household serfs?

• State peasants were not emancipated until 1866, but they ended up with allotments twice the size of the former serfs

• Household serfs were granted their freedom, they were allocated no land

Advantages on the peasantry after the emancipation?

• Peasants were free- could marry, own property and set up businesses

• They could travel and enjoy legal rights

• Could sue people

• No longer can be punished by landlords

Disadvantages on the peasantry after the emancipation?

• Peasants required to pay redemption payments to the government for 49 years (led to 342 peasant uprisings)

• Freed serfs were to remain within their peasant commune until al their redemption payments had been made

• Peasants had to buy a 1/3 of the landlord’s land they were selling- usually least fertile part of the land

• Peasants remained legally tied to the mir and could only leave with a passport

Advantages on the nobility after the emancipation?

• They were used to help create the terms so they could benefit themselves

• They received compensation which came in the form of interest-bearing state bonds

• They were able to choose which 1/3 of the land they were selling

Disadvantages on the nobility after the emancipation?

• They are no longer allowed to punish their slaves

• They lost a third of their land

• They have to pay their workers

What issues arised after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861?

• Serfs could no longer be relied on to be in the army

• The relationship change between the nobility and peasantry caused a shake-up in local government in rural areas

• Alexander II’s advisors wanted to see more reform

• Dissatisfaction with the emancipation led to further reform

What reforms were made to the Military and were they successful?

• Introduced a short term service- 15 years (6 in service, 9 in reserve) regardless of social class

• Divided empire into 15 military districts

• → Army was more civilised and mobile, better educated and better equipped

• Conscription not limited to serfs

What reforms were made to the Judicial System and were they successful?

• Introduced a new system but it excluded peasants→ they had to be content with the justice dispersed by local courts or government appointed peace

• Volost courts made for peasants

• → Didn’t allow fair trials for peasants

What reforms were made to the Censorship and Education and were they successful?

• Regulated and expanded elementary schools

• Increased number of secondary schools

• More funding into education

• Sunday Schools closed in 1862

• Censorship moved to ministry of the Interior in 1863

• Censorship rules change in 1865, no need for prior government approval

What reforms were made to the Economy and were they successful?

• Vigorous policy on industrialisation, especially on railways (1862-2K miles → 1878- 14kmiles)

• Imports of raw goods increased

• Private investments encouraged

• Found ores in rich areas of Ukraine

• → helped trade in Russia

What reforms were made to the Church and were they successful?

• Sunday schools closed in 1862

• Power over education changed from the Church to the Zemstva

• Third Section thought church were hotbeds for radicalism and opposition

What was the reaction to reform by the Peasantry?

• Peasants would not have liked being the minority of influence in electoral matters, however they would have liked the Zemstva taking controls over roads, schools, poor relief during the 1893 famine

• Peasants allowed to have a better education

• Peasants and nobility now on the same level in terms of conscription in the army

What was the reaction to reform by the Nobility/former landlords?

• They would have enjoyed having political power and being the majority of members in the Zemstva and electoral matters

• They would like to see the development of Russia

• They resented that they could also get conscripted into the army alongside the peasant

• Nobility’s evidence in court is of highest importance

What was the reaction to reform by the Orthodox Church?

• They despised their power over education being transferred from them to the Zemstva

• Resented attempts to deal with corruption in the lower levels of Orthodox Churches

What was the reaction to reform by the Slavophiles?

• They didn’t support the reforms as the Orthodox Church has less of an influence

• Ex-serfs have similar rights/opportunities as the nobility→ threatens the autocratic Tsarist rule in Russia

Why did Alexander II reverse his reforms?

• 4th April 1866, he had an assassination attempt by a student of noble Russian blood

• He had less resistance to adopt a harsher line of government

• Married his mistress 40 days after his wife died from TB- conspiracy

• His family were distant from him

How did Alexander II reverse education?

• Liberal subjects changed to traditional curriculum

• Western liberal ideas were to be eradicated

• Education controlled under Orthodox Church again

• Tolstoy in charge of education

How did Alexander II reverse the police and the law courts?

• Shuvalov stepped up and strengthened the activities of the Third Section (Secret Police)- responsible for rooting out opposition

• Konstantin ensured judiciary made an example of those accused of political agitation

• Open “show trials” introduced to deter people from radical ideas

What was Alexander II’s attitude to ethnic minorities?

• 1863 Polish Revolt (supressed in 1864)- increase in suspicion to minorities (50% of Russian empire was minorities)

• Increase in opposition from minorities

Who were the 2 broad groups in the Intelligentsia and what did they agree on?

Slavophiles and Westerners (Liberals)

Both agreed Russia was in urgent need of reform and was failing behind the countries in Western Europe

Why do the Slavophiles and Westerners differ?

Slavophiles reject Western ways as corrupt and prefer to seek Russia’s future in traditional institutions like the peasantry and the Mir

Westerners wanted to adopt Western liberal ways on running government, society and economy

What is Populism (Slavophiles) and what did they do?

• Agrarian socialists who influenced a generation of idealistic young radicals to get the peasants to revolt

• They launched a movement in the 1870s known as “to the people”

• 2000 students and middle class radicals descended upon rural Russia to teach the peasants how to be revolutionaries

• Peasants reacted in hostility and refused to take on the radical ideas as previous uprisings had been dealt with extreme force

• 1876, 1600 populists arrested → led to Trial of 50 (1877) and Trial of the 193 (1878)

What is Land and Liberty (Slavophiles) and what did they do?

• Created in 1877, regrouped Slavophiles of the Populists

• They assassinated several prominent government officials and passed a death sentence on the Tsar

• Land and Liberty split into 2 groups: Black Partition and People’s Will due to disagreements over tactics

What is Black Partition (Slavophiles) and what did they do?

• Rejected use of terrorism

• Believed the main focus of revolutionary activities should be raising awareness amongst Russian peasants

• Their main demand was redistribution of land to the peasants

What is People’s Will (Slavophiles) and what did they do?

• Wanted to end Tsardom and assassinate Alexander II

• They did several attempts over the years (1879 train bomb and 1880 Winter Palace bomb→ both failed)

• 13th March 1881 they successfully assassinated Alexander II

Who are the Liberals (Westerners) and what did they do?

• Held views from the Enlightenment and French Revolution

• Wanted to reform rather than abolish Russian Political system

• Included free speech, rule of law, representative government and protection of individual rights

• Small movement

• Many liberals were members of the gentry (lawyers, doctors, teachers)

• They were active at Universities and within professional bodies

• Published lots of literature calling for further representation in Russia and a constitution

What were the changes in urban and rural living and working conditions after Alexander II’s reforms?

• There was a general drift from village communities into the towns after the emancipation of the serfs

• Rural conditions changed due to the mir, traditional village communities destroyed

• New class of wealthier peasants, Kulaks emerged in the countryside

• State and municipal banks established and trade was promoted

• Economy still remained weak

When was the role of seeking out opposition given to the Supreme Administration Commission?

1880

Used the Third Section to close down many opposition activities but also drew up proposals for partly elected national Duma

Alexander II signed the Lloris Melnikov Constituency on 13th March 1881 (same day A2 was assassinated) . What did these reforms include?

• Releasing political prisoners

• Relaxing censorship

• Removing Salt tax

• Lifting restrictions on the activities of the Zemstva

• Abolishing the Third section and transferring its powers to the regular police

• Allowing elected representatives of the nobility to create drafts of some state decrees

What happened after Alexander II’s death?

• Alexander III built the Church of Spilled blood in 1883 as a memorial to his father

• Alexander III was now the new Tsar of Russia