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developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
Teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
accomodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived
sensorimotor stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
preoperational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
conservation
the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental statesāabout their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts
scaffold
a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
attachments
strong emotional ties formed to one or more intimate companions
critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life
strange situation
a procedure for studying child-caregiver attachment; a child is placed in an unfamiliar environment while their caregiver leaves and then returns, and the child's reactions are observed
secure attachment
demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return
temperament
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
insecure attachment
the attachment style for a minority of infants; the infant may exhibit insecure attachment through various behaviors, such as avoiding contact with the caregiver, or by alternating between approach and avoidance behaviors
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
self concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
sex
the biological differences that distinguish males from females
gender
the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
aggression
physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone
relational aggression
an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing
role
a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave
social learning
a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others
gender identity
our sense of being male or female
gender role
a set of expected behaviors for males and for females
gender typing
the process of acquiring gender role characteristics
androgyny
displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics
transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
emerging adulthood
the transitional period from adolescence to adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 25 years of age where it goes from dependent to independent
X chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
Testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
longitudional study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis. Sexual stage theory such as oral anal etc. Founder of psychoanalysis.
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Lev Vygotsky
zone of proximal development and scaffolding
Harry and Margaret Harlow
Researchers known for their controversial experiments with monkeys in which they showed that baby monkeys are drawn to mothers that provide comfort rather than simply food. Also showed that monkeys raised in isolation developed severe mental and social deficits
Konrad Lorenz
ethology (animal behavior); studied imprinting and critical periods in geese
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
Diana Baumrind
researcher who developed a model of parenting styles that included authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive
Carol Gilligan
moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse. Also critiqued Kohlberg for his theory of moral development being large individualistic society based.
Albert Bandura
pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
Lawrence Kohlberg
Famous for his theory of moral development in children; made use of moral dilemmas in assessment
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