Conservatism (core ideas)

What are the 6 key principles of conservatism?

1. Pragmatism
2. Tradition
3. Human imperfection
4. Organic society or state
5. Paternalism
6. Libertarianism

What is does pragmatism reject in favour of? How should society be approached?

Pragmatism rejects theory and ideology in favour of practical experience - the approach to society should be flexible, with decisions made on the basis of what works.

Which two conservative thinkers is pragmatism usually associated with?

Edmund Burke and Michael Oakeshott

What Oakeshott quote summarises the principle of pragmatism within Conservatism?

"To be a Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried"

What does pragmatism consider when approaching politics?

Pragmatism considers what is in the best interests of the people, what is acceptable and what will maintain social stability and cohesion.

What view is Conservatives' preference for pragmatism strongly linked to?

Their view of human rationality is strongly linked to pragmatism.

Which type of theories do conservatives dismiss?

Conservatives tend to dismiss abstract ideas, theories and ideologies that claim to 'explain' or 'improve' human life and development.

Why do conservatives dismiss abstract theories? 2 reasons.

1. Humans lack the intellectual ability and powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world.

2. Abstract theories such as human rights and a classless society are dangerous as they promote a radical reordering of society that leads to worse conditions.

What are weaknesses of pragmatism?

Critics argue that pragmatism reveals a lack of political principle and encourages politicians to follow rather than lead public opinion - in public, political action cannot be wholly separated from ideological considerations.

Which two strands of conservatism are linked to pragmatism?

Traditional and one-nation conservatism

What did Edmund Burke hold about pragmatism?

For Burke, pragmatism was an essential element in facilitating "natural" or inevitable change within a state of society - this change should nit be opposed because for a state to keep going, it would have to adapt to some extent.

Why did Burke oppose revolution as a way of change?

Burke argued that revolution would lead to conflict and chaos.

What does pragmatic policy preserve according to Burke?

The key features of society, such as order, property, tradition and established institutions, are preserved by pragmatic policy.

What is the idea of "change to conserve"?

Change to conserve is the idea that society should adapt to changing circumstances by introducing moderate reforms, rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion - links to pragmatism.

How have one-nation conservatives approach social reform and pragmatism in recent years?

More recently, one-nation conservatives have adopted a pragmatic "middle way" approach to the economy that combines market competition with government regulation. This promotes growth and social harmony by encouraging wealth creation and generating funding for state welfare programmes.

What is a clear example of one-nation conservatism pragmatism?

Conservative governments of 1951-64, where they took a pragmatic decision to retain Labour's reforms of nationalisation and the welfare state.

What is tradition?

Tradition is institutions, customs and practices of a society that have developed over time.

In what ways did the Conservative emphasis on tradition have religious roots?

Conservatives who believed that the world was created by a divine being saw society's institutions and practices of society as "God-given". Humans who attempt to alter these longstanding social arrangements are challenging the will of God and are likely to undermine society.

Why has the divine justification for tradition weakened?

It was severely weakened by the impact of Enlightenment thinking and the incorporation of obviously man-made innovations over time, such as representative democracy.

According to Burke and Chesterton, what does tradition constitute?

Tradition constitutes the accumulated wisdom of the past.

Why should the wisdom of the past be protected in this view?

Institutions, customs and practices of the past have demonstrated their value as they have proved "fit for purpose" and survived - they should be preserved so current and future generations can also benefit from them.

What does Burke point out about generations and tradition?

Burke argues that each generation has a solemn duty to safeguard and pass on the accumulated wisdom of tradition to the next generation.

In what circumstances can change be justified according to conservatives?

Change can only be justified if it evolves naturally in a peaceful, gradual way in order to strengthen existing institutions.

How do conservatives use France and Russia as examples of destroying tradition being damaging?

The French in 1789 and the Bolsheviks in Russia in 1917 were cutting themselves off from the past by seeking to destroy all traditional institutions.

This ultimately led to regimes that were more tyrannical, like the Napoleonic Empire and Stalinist dictatorship.

How does tradition ensure a sense of identity?

Traditional institutions, customs and practices are familiar and provide individuals with a historically based identity based on their belonging to a particular society.

How does tradition foster social cohesion and security?

Tradition encourages social cohesion because it offers humans a reassuring collective sense of who they are, and establishes powerful ties between people and specific societies.

How did the Conservative opposition during New Labour criticise the rapid change being implemented?

Conservatives argued that New Labour's constitutional reforms, such as devolution and HoL reform, would undermine the constitutional stability of the UK and create uncertainty.

True or false? Conservatives have a pessimistic view of human nature.

True!

What are people (human nature) like according to conservatives?

People are flawed and incapable of reaching a state of perfection. Human nature is constant and has the capacity for evil.

What 3 requirements do conservatives have as a result of their pessimistic view of human nature?

1. A tough stance on law and order - to deter criminal behaviour.

2. Foreign policy has to be based on national security rather than liberal notions of international cooperation as human nature cannot be changed.

3. A political system based on self-interest rather than selflessness as human behaviour is competitive.

What are the 3 ways in which humans are flawed?

Human are flawed psychologically, morally and intellectually.

How are humans psychologically flawed?

Humans are limited and dependent, they crave safety, familiarity and the security of knowing their designated place in society.

How do conservatives believe we can deal with the psychological flaws of humans? What is NOT a good solution?

Social order, rather than liberty, is required - it provides humans with security, predictability and stability.

Liberty raises the unsettling prospect of choice, change and uncertainty.

Who argued that social order has to come before liberty?

Thomas Hobbes.

How are humans morally imperfect?

Humans are naturally selfish and greedy. Anti-social or criminal behaviour is ONLY due to basic human nature.

How can society combat the moral imperfections of humans according to conservatives?

A robust law and order system that imposes severe sanctions on anti-social/criminal conduct is the only effective deterrent.

How are humans intellectually imperfect?

The intellect and reasoning of humans are limited. They do not possess the mental faculties to make sense of a complex modern world.

Why can people not exist separately from society/social groups?

Conservatives regard humans as dependent and security-seeking.

Society and social groups prevent the development of _________?

Anomie

What is anomie?

Anomie is a condition of instability affecting individuals and societies, produced by a breakdown in social standards and values or by a lack of purpose or ideals.

What is true freedom in conservatism?

True freedom is the willing acceptance of the value of social obligations and ties, accepting the duties, responsibilities and bonds that go with belonging to society.

What would happen if people did not acknowledge their societal responsibilities and bonds?

Human society would lack cohesion without these responsibilities and descend into atomism.

What is atomism?

Atomism is the idea that society is made up of self-interested and self-sufficient individuals.

It is also known as egoistical individualism.

What is organicism and how does this idea view society?

Organicism is the idea of an organic society or state - it views society as a living organism, with all its parts working together in harmony to ensure the "body" remains healthy.

How should the internal elements of an organic society be treated in the conservative view?

The internal elements CANNOT be randomly reconfigured - an organic society is maintained by a delicate set of relationships. If this balance is disturbed, society will be undermined and possibly destroyed.

Rather than ideology, what is an organic society based on and how should its members approach change?

An organic society is based on natural needs and instincts such as affection, security and concern. It suggests that its members should sustain its balance and avoid radical change - traditional institutions preserve the "health" of society.

What 2 conservative ideas underpin the idea of an organic society?

Hierarchy and authority underpin the idea of an organic society.

Why is society naturally hierarchical?

Society is naturally hierarchical - it is based on fixed social ranks and inequalities. This is partly due to how individuals vary in terms of their talents, intellect, skills and work rate.

Why is inequality required in an organic society? How does it produce inequality?

Organic society requires different classes and groups to perform specific roles - some have to provide political leadership, while others have to perform routine manual work.

It also produces natural inequalities in terms of financial rewards and social status.

Why can conservatives justify inequality?

Conservatives argue that the most advantaged also bear the heaviest social responsibilities. Managers and employers enjoy higher living standards than their workers, but also carry the burden of protecting the jobs and economic well-being of the company.

What does a hierarchical organic society encourage to ensure social cohesion?

Paternalism.

How does authority develop in society and what is its nature?

Authority develops naturally or organically - it operates in a top-down manner, shapes relations between different social groups and permeates all social institutions.

What function does authority perform?

Authority performs a vital function by providing humans with security, direction and support.

It also promotes social cohesion by giving people a clear sense of belonging and responsibility.

How do conservatives believe the role of leadership is?

Leadership not only offers discipline, but also an example to be admired, respected and accepted.

How are the actions of those holding authority limited? e.g..?

Those holding authority are limited by natural responsibilities that accompany their privileged position.

For example, employers have authority over workers but this does not give them the right to abuse employees.

In conservative thought, what is paternalism?

Paternalism is the idea of government by people who are best equipped to lead by virtue of their birth, inheritance and upbringing.

What does Burke call those who lead society based on innate values that cannot be obtained by hard work?

The "natural aristocracy"

What figure does Burke compare the natural aristocracy to?

Burke compares it to a father - the social elite provide leadership because of its innate ability, just as a father exercises authority, ensures protection and provides guidance.

What duty do those have at the top of society have according to paternalism?

Those at the top have a duty to care for the lower social ranks.

How did conservatives in the 18th and 19th centuries act in paternalistic ways?

They improved material conditions for their tenants and employees and also took part in charitable and philanthropic works.

How were paternalistic leaders drawn?

Paternalistic leaders were drawn from the aristocratic elite that had been educated in the values of social obligation and public service, and had provided senior political-decision makers for generations.

How has recent paternalistic conservatism used the government?

It has relied on government regulation of the economy and social welfare measures to improve conditions for the poorest in society.

How did David Cameron draw on paternalism?

David Cameron drew on paternalism when he called for "compassionate conservatism".

What are the two forms of paternalism?

1. Soft - when those who are the recipients give their consent.

2. Hard - when paternalism is imposed, regardless of consent or opposition, in a more authoritarian manner.

Who are the origins of one-nation paternalistic conservatism traced back to?

Benjamin Disraeli is considered the origin of paternalism. He served as a Conservative PM from 1874 to 1880.

In his books Coningsby and Sybil, what did Disraeli warn?

Disraeli warned that Britain was dividing into two nations, the rich and poor, and this increased the likelihood of social revolution.

What solution did Disraeli propose for the rich and poor divide in Britain?

He argued this divide could be solved by the privileged in society recognising their social obligation and duty to look after the less fortunate. They would preserve their advantages while also alleviating the hardships faced by the lower classes, strengthening social cohesion and stability.

What two ideas did Disraeli's one-nation paternalism blend?

Self-interest and principle.

How did the moderate UK Conservative governments of the 50s and 60s reflect paternalism?

They steered a central course between free-market economics and state planning, as they believed that the free-market led to fragmentation and lack of protection, while state planning stifled individuality and entrepreneurial flair.

What did Harold Macmillan state that government regulation and market completion produced?

A "private enterprise without selfishness".

How can paternalism be interpreted as only protecting aristocratic interests?

Paternalism advocating the improvement of conditions of poorer groups was really motivated by a desire to strengthen the hierarchy in society by removing threats to the social order.

What theory completely rejects the idea of paternalism?

Neo-liberalism.

What is the aim of neo-liberalism?

Neo-liberalism aims to reduce the size of the state so that the unregulated market can generate a more dynamic and efficient economy leading to increased growth and prosperity.

According to neo-liberals, what does government intervention undermine?

Government intervention undermines human initiative and enterprise, resulting in economic stagnation.

What neo-liberal principle opposes paternalism?

Individualism - it stresses the importance of self-help, responsibility and personal initiative.

What is libertarianism?

A political philosophy that emphasis the rights of citizens to liberty, advocating only minimal state intervention in the lives of citizens.

What is the primary role of the state according to libertarianism?

The primary role is to protect individual rights.

How does libertarianism rival paternalism?

Libertarianism argues for maximum economic freedom and minimal government regulation, rivalling the state intervention present in paternalisms.

Why did Burke advocate for free trade and a market economy?

Burke argued that a market economy and free trade were just, efficient and "natural" due to the human desire for wealth.

What is libertarian conservativism known as in the modern day?

The liberal New Right or neo-liberalism.

Which president/PM is neo-liberalism associated with?

Thatcher and Reagan are associated strongly with neoliberalism.

Which economic theory does neoliberalism strongly oppose?

Keynesian economics.

What is the biggest threat to the market economy according to neo-liberals and what would it do?

Inflation - by undermining financial confidence, inflation inhibits all forms of economic and business activity.

How do neo-liberals combat inflation?

They call for government spending cuts to control money supply.

Neo-liberals endorse "_______-_______" economics.

Supply side .

How is supply-side economics put into practice?

Producers' access to key economic resources has to be unrestricted - obstacles such as government regulation, high taxation and trade union influence over the labour market must be removed. The government should focus on the "supply side".

What culture do state welfare programmes create according to neo-liberals?

A "dependency culture" - undermining personal responsibility and initiative.

What were the impacts of the dependency culture according to neoliberals?

The dependency culture was eroding parental financial responsibility for children, therefore undermining the institution of the family, sapping the drive to create wealth and encouraging the growth of an under class.

What do policies that provide welfare services and redistribute income undermine according to neoliberals?

Policies that provide welfare services and redistribution of wealth undermine property rights - no legally acquired property (including income) can be transferred without consent - taxation revenue to fund welfare programmes is a form of legalised “state robbery”.