CPO2001 POST-TERM REVIEW - Essentials (+Readings and Cases) of Comparative Politics 2022

What is communism?

it is a set of political ideas about class and politics founded by Karl Marx which focuses on human equality through the elimination of traditional capitalist structures such as private ownership and market forces, providing an explanation for how society operates and what causes upheaval

What does "surplus value of labor" refer to?

it is the added cost of an item attributed to the construction or manhours put into producing it (it is MORE than just the sum of it's parts, basically profit) and, according to Marx, is easily taken advantage of to create economic injustice and inequality (for instance, the owners of capital take this excess for themselves rather than disperse it)

Who are the proletariat?

it is made up of the working class, those who produce value through labor, often exploited by the bourgeoisie

Who are the bourgeoisie?

it is made up of the capitalist, property-owning upper-middle class that often exploits the working class (proletariat) for their own ends

What is the base in Marxist theory?

it is the system of economic production that the superstructure rests upon, including the means of production (the level of technology) and the relations of production (the class relations that exist as a result of the level of technology, ex. industrialization)

What is the superstructure in Marxist theory?

it is the culmination of all noneconomic institutions of society (nationalism, culture, religion, etc.) and is explained as a distraction from real politics as a way to justify the existing order of the base

What is the idea of false consciousness?

it is the idea that one is "buying into" the superstructure, essentially failing to understand that they are being exploited by the bourgeoisie and distracted from the real politics of the base

What is dialectical materialism?

its is the historic struggle between the existing order (the thesis) and the challenge to that order (the antithesis) in terms of material desires and the tensions that arise out of those desires (who produces what? who gets what?)

What does "dictatorship of the proletariat" refer to?

it refers to the temporary phase of human history (under Marxist theory) between capitalist democracy and communist utopia, whereby the state is given full control in order to eradicate all vestiges of capitalism, the base, and the superstructure, sometimes referred to as socialist to differentiate it from the end goal of communist utopia, whereby the state would become unnecessary

Since it does not happen naturally under Marxist theory, what does revolution need in order to occur?

it requires that revolutionary classes gain a sort of consciousness (break from the false consciousness) and understand what they seek to gain from this occurrence

What purpose does the vanguard of the proletariat serve and what is its ultimate problem?

it is a term by Lenin in which a small group of revolutionaries seize power on behalf of the people, although in a lot of cases this group ultimately becomes the autocrats they sought to overthrow, kind of defeating the purpose

What is the nomenklatura?

it is made up of politically sensitive or influential positions in government or society ran by party leaders, as to strengthen the means of control used to generate legitimacy for the regime and the party (see China and USSR)

What is central planning? What are some of its problems

it is when the government makes major decisions about the economy (essentially, it is the OPPOSITE of laissez-faire, AKA dirigisme), although it ultimately fails to function as it is nearly impossible to implement fully and effectively, as well as it lacks production incentives (tends to result in corruption and shortages)

What is the Politburo?

it is the top policy-making and EXECUTIVE body of a communist party (think China and the USSR)

What is the central comitee?

it is the LEGISLATURE type body of a communist party (think China and the USSR)

Under communism, what is a party-state?

it is a political system whereby power flows from the party to the state, bypassing government structures

What is society like under communist rule?

it regularly suppressed any religious, nationalistic, and cultural (such as gender and sexuality norms) forces that did not pertain to the economy (although, despite suppression, these ideas realistically lurked under the surface)

What is Perestroika?

it is the policy under Gorbachev that created ACTUAL INSTITUTIONAL REFORM in the economy and political system, but struggled under bureaucratic inflexibility

What is Glasnost?

it is the policy under Gorbachev that ENCOURAGED public debate in the USSR, resolving bureaucratic inflexibility

What is shock therapy?

it is an abrupt shift to market capitalism in post-communist societies (see Russia)

What was the average result of the fall of communism in post-communist states?

it majoritively resulted in a rise of institutions that were previously suppressed, such as nationalism and religion, but economic and political transitions vary

Why do economic and political transitions following the fall of communism vary so widely?

it is likely due to the length of soviet control, amount of procommunist capitalist industrial experience, and level of ties to the international community and western/local regional support (such as NATO or, more effectively, the EU)

What is a developing country (formerly known as the third world)?

it is a country with GDP at a PPP of $13,000 or less, distinguishing it from already developed nations (such as the United States or most of Europe), encompassing middle and lower income countries

What is a middle income country?

it is a country with GDP at a PPP between $4,000 and $13,000, used to distinguish countries that have experienced dramatic democratization and economic growth to more closely resemble developed democracies than lower income countries (AKA LDCs)

What is a lower income country (AKA, less developed countries or LDCs)?

it is a country with GDP at a PPP of less than $4,000, used to distinguish countries that have remained weak, instable, and relatively poor when compared to developed and middle income countries, who's state has at least some sizable form of democratization and economic growth/prosperity

What is imperialism?

it describes a SYSTEM whereby state power is extended over territories, resources, and people beyond its borders

What is colonialism?

it indicates the PHYSICAL OCCUPATION of a foreign country through military force, businesses, or settlers (therefore, it is used to consolidate an empire and is thus a type of imperialism, but not all imperialism is this)

Why did imperialism and colonialism rise in European states?

it rose to meet a need to control less advanced peripheral markets that propped up the European economy (think Suez canal, Constantinople, the spice trade, etc.), additionally driven by an ideological desire to spread Christian and western culture, something rarely experienced in the less developed conservative peripheral lands

What was the first major effect of imperialism?

it was the imposition of the European style system of states on the rest of the world (spread of state-structures and institutions across the globe)

What were some of the benefits of imperialism on the periphery?

it included increased transportation infrastructure, education, life expectancies and reduced infant mortality

What were the negative effects of imperialism?

it included the erosion of traditional institutions/religions, poor economic/political development, poorly drawn borders in relation to ethnic/religious divides, and the empowerment of minorities by means of European divide-and-conquer strategies

What does dependent development refer to in terms of imperialized states?

it refers to the mercantilist, export-focused economies that were imposed upon colonial states that negated free trade, domestic improvements/economy, and created infrastructure that was made for the sole purpose of trade, not domestic development; TLDR, states were ill suited to do anything but support the economy of their host state, including caring for their own needs

Where and when did the first wave of anti-imperial revolution begin?

it occurred in Latin America during the Napoleonic wars (and late 1700s if you want to count the United States)

Where and When was the second wave of anti-imperial revolution?

it occurred in Africa and Asia following WWII

In terms of economic, social, and political development, how do post-imperial regions vary?

it can be seen as Asia fairing the best, Africa the worst, and Latin America is mixed

What are the main challenges of post-imperial states?

it is the difficulty of creating effective political institutions, maintaining the unity that was only fabricated to gain independence, and dealing with the influence of outside supportive forces that ultimately weaken the state, all of which damage the capacity and autonomy of post-imperial states

What is neocolonialism?

it is an indirect form of imperialism in which powerful countries overly influence the economies of less developed countries, most often along the lines of former colonial master relations

What are the 3 different strategies used by post-colonial states to promote growth?

it consists of import substitution, export-oriented industrialization, and structural adjustment

What is import substitution?

it is a system by which countries restrict imports, raising tariff or nontariff barriers to spur demand for local alternatives

What are the downsides of import substitution?

it ultimately created state-reliant industries that could not compete on the overly-competitive world scale, thus leaving these industries underdeveloped (could result in middle income trap)

What is export-oriented industrialization?

it is a system by which countries invest capital in export sectors, sometimes using comparative advantage to manufacture already innovated products more efficiently and cheaply

What are the downsides of export-oriented industrialization?

it requires a substantial amount of capital investment, depends on access to foreign markets and can sometimes even result in corruption (still, it has seen much more success than import substitution)

What is structural adjustment?

it is sometimes referred to as neoliberalism or Washington Consensus, whereby state involvement in the economy is minimized and market forces are trusted to guide the economy, sometimes encouraging foreign investment

What are the downsides of structural adjustment?

it is often criticized as a tool of neocolonialism and often fails to bring substantial economic development, additionally it is rarely if ever implemented fully, as governments still regulate the economy to some extent

What is the middle income trap?

it is a situation where countries experience economic growth but are unable to develop at the speed necessary to catch up with developed economies

Why do some post-imperial states succeed at democratization and economic growth whereas others fail?

it all has to do with the interplay of ethnic divisions, resources available, and stability of governance

What are the two major institutional spheres that ought to be acknowledged in order to promote growth in developing countries?

they are state institutions (corruption & rent seeking) and social institutions (high level of social mistrust)

Why is state corruption viewed as a central weakness?

it is due to their response towards special interests, it makes it hard to start/expand business, ambitious people end up working for state not private sector, and state officials will seek bribes for services/support

What are some solutions to state corruption?

they consist of successful democratic implementation and support from NGOs under neocolonial setups

Why is social mistrust viewed as a central weakness?

it is due to its hinderance of tax collection, formation of inequality, making it difficult to enforce changes, and a general resentment of unequal contribution

What are some possible solutions to social mistrust?

they consist of starting small (local engagement), creating national projects that mix ethnic groups, direct support of civil society, development of independent media, and the creation of opposition parties with a national base

What is the informal economy/sector?

it is the segment of the economy that is not regulated, protected, or taxed by the state (think lemonade stands, developing world street vendors, etc.)

What is micro-credit?

it is the lending of small amounts of money at low interest to new businesses in the developing world.

What is globalization?

it is the process by which states and their people increase interaction between one another and create international effects (think internet, Arab Spring, rise of nationalism/internationalism, etc.)

What differentiates modern globalization from previous "globalizing effects" that have occurred throughout history?

it is different because of the depth (or as the book puts it, thickness) of its modern incarnation, wherein whole societies are directly connected through institutions, media, and communication services, rather than connected via means of "middle men" like representatives and missionaries

What are the 3 means of modern globalization?

they consist of multinational corporations (MNCs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs)

What is a multinational corporation?

it is a firm with activities in many countries (Apple, Amazon, Microsoft, etc.)

What is a non-governmental organization?

it is a national or international interest group that is independent of any state seeking political goals and fostering public participation (Greenpeace, Red Cross, etc.)

What is an intergovernmental organization?

it is a group created by states to serve specific policy ends (World Trade Organization, United Nations, European Union, etc.)

What is an international regime?

it is a set of rules and norms that link states together and shape their relationships to one another, usually regarding some specific issues

How does globalization affect sovereignty?

it affect it through the voluntary or involuntary relief of sovereignty to IGOs, and can ultimately undercut the sovereignty of a state through contrasting legal and political rules and values (ultimately can increase capacity of states while possibly reducing their autonomy)

What does "democratic deficit" refer to?

it is the idea that if power moves to global institutions, representation and democratic control may grow weaker since citizens clack the ability to control these bodies, which then grow distant from the citizenry and their preferences

How might globalism erode capacity?

they might undermine attempts at state censorship or encourage activist groups that directly hurt states (terrorism, human rights groups, etc.)

What are the 3 possibilities for the future of globalization?

they consist of the "golden straightjacket" (economic competition forces countries to adopt similar policies), supranational democracy (countries forming strong IGOs responsive to voters concerns), and a limited view (countries will maintain liberty and independence by limiting economic ties)

What is the Bretton Woods System?

it was a set of global institutions designed to support the development of a liberal international economic order

What did the Bretton Woods System include?

it included the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, became WTO), and the Gold Standard

What does the International Monetary Fund (IMF) do?

it stabilizes exchange rates and restructures national debt payment schemes

What does the World Bank do?

it provides loans to assist in (re)development

What does the World Trade Organization (WTO, formerly GATT) do?

it oversees trade agreements between member states to lower tariffs and remove other, nontariff barriers

What was the Gold Standard?

it provided (ended in 1971) for the convertibility of the US dollar into a fixed exchange rate with gold

What is foreign direct investment (FDI)?

it is the purchase of assets in a country by a foreign firm

What is offshore outsourcing?

it is a process of moving some of a firm's work to a secondary business that can do the work more efficiently or cheaply

What do proponents of economic globalization say?

they say that it widens the market, allows for more investment, and allows for more international offshoring

What do detractors of economic globalization say?

they say that it creates tougher competition, may force countries to relax regulations in order to catch up, workers cannot bargain as efficiently, and one might say that it is an overall "race to the bottom"

What does the idea of global cosmopolitanism refer to?

it is the idea that society will pull its values from everywhere and become truly multicultural

What are the positive aspects of social globalization?

it could be the idea that politics will spread beyond borders, forming politically relevant groups that span many nations

What are the negative implications of social globalization?

it could cause a resurgence in nationalism, as nations fear the wiping away of their national identity similar to that idea against immigration, and there could be conflict as cultures clash internationally

Why were past globalizations larger proportionally?

it might be due to the fact that political integration was stronger during imperial times, more immigration occurred in the 19th century, and capital moved easier in the earlier 1900 due to relaxed restrictions

If past globalizations were larger proportionally, why is modern globalization so important?

it might be due to the wider access of international information (internet), the higher availability of world travel, the democratization of capital and of trade

What are some international trade organizations?

the ones you might wanna know are the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)