AP Psych Unit 2

Paul Broca

known for his research on Broca's area, a region of the frontal lobe that is named after him. Broca's area is involved with language.

Carl Wernicke

known to speech-language pathologists for his study of aphasia and for his discovery of the area in the cerebrum responsible for receptive language/speech

Roger Sperry

discovered that human beings are of two minds, found that the human brain has specialized functions on the right and left, and that the two sides can operate practically independently.

Michael Gazzaniga

led pioneering studies in learning and understanding split brained patients and how their brains work.

phineas gage

one of the first examples of scientific evidence indicating that damage to the frontal lobes may alter personality, emotions and social interaction

neurons

A nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system

sensory (afferent)

neurons that carry incoming info from bodies, tissues and sensory receptors to brain/spinal cord

Motor (efferent)

neurons that carry outgoing info from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within brain/spinal cord; they communicate internally and process info between sensory inputs and motor outputs

cell body (soma)

part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cells life support-center

dendrites

often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward cell bodies

axon

neuron extension that passes messages thru its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

myelin sheath

fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next (less=MS)

synapse

junction between axon and tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron, tiny gap at junction called synaptic gap or synaptic cliff

glial cells

cells in nervous system that support nourish and protect neurons; play role on learning, thinking, and memory

action potential

neural impulse; a breif electrical charge that travels down axon

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all-or-none response

signal transmission between neurons is not dependent on the strength of the stimuli but, rather, only that the initial threshold is met.

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that your body can't function without. Their job is to carry chemical signals (“messages”) from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next target cell. The next target cell can be another nerve cell, a muscle cell or a gland.

serotonin

affects mood, hunger, sleep, arousal. undersupply linked to depression, drugs can increase —- levels used to treat depression

norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal. undersupply can depress mood

Acetylcholine (ACh)

enables muscle action, learning and memory. with alzheimer’s, producing neurons starts to deteriorate

GABA

major inhibitory neurotransmittor, undersupply linked to tremors/insomnia

Glutamate

major excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in memory. oversupply can overstimulate brain, producing migraines and seziures

endorphins

neurotransmitters influence perception of pain and pleasure. oversupply linked with opiate drugs can suppress bodies natural endorphin supply.

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention and emotion. oversupply linked to schizo, undersupply linked to tremors, decreased mobility in parkinsons disease

Agonist

molecule that increases neurotranmitors action

antagonist

molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

reuptake

neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron

depolarization

a change in the difference between the electric charge on the inside and the outside of the cell membrane and is when the cell becomes positively charged (or less negative).

Nervous System

bodies fast, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

Central nervous system (CNS)

brain/spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

Somatic nervous system

division of the PNS that controls the bodies skeletal muscles or skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

part of the PNS that controls glands and muscles of internal organs

sympathetic nervous system

division of ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

division of ANS that calms body, conserving its energy

reflex

a simple, autonomic response to sensory stimulus such as knee-jerk response

endocrine system

bodies “slow” chemical communication system; a sat of glands that secrete hormones into blood stream

adrenal glands

pair of endocrine glands that sit just above kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse body in times of stress

pituitary glands

endocrine systems most influential gland, under influence of hypothalamus, regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

pineal gland

small gland in the center of the brain. It secretes the hormone melatonin and is primarily responsible for regulating patterns of sleep and waking.

pancreas

secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising them (glucagon)

thyroid

produces hormones that regulate the body's metabolic rate, as well as heart and digestive function, muscle control, brain development, mood and bone maintenance

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by other endocrine glands, travel thru bloodstream and affect tissues, and organs

lesion

tissue destruction, a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

EEG

amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

MEG

brain imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brains natural electrical activity

CT scan or CAT scan

series of x-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by a computer into composite representation of a slice of the brains structure

PET scan

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain preforms a given task

MRI

technique uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue, also shows brain anatomy

fMRI

technique used for revealing blood flow and therefore brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans, shows brain functions and structure

brainstem

oldest and central core of brain, beginning where spine swells as it enters skull; responsible for automatic survival function

medulla

base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

brains sensory control center, located atop brain brain stem; directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation (RAS)

nerve network that travels thru brainstem into thalamus and plays important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

rear of brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

pons

It consists of bundles of transverse, ascending, and descending nerve fibers and nuclei, including facial nerve nuclei. It serves primarily as a bridge, or transmission structure, between different areas of the nervous system

Limbic system

neural system (amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Amygdala

2 lima bean sized neural clusters in limbic system; linked to emotion

hippocampus

neural center located in limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memory of facts and events.

hypothalamus

neural structure lying below thalamus; directs maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via pituitary gland and linked to emotion and reward

Cerebral cortex

intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the bodies ultimate control and info processing center

frontal lobe

portion of cerebral cortex lying behind forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

parietal lobe

portion of cerebral cortex lying at the top rear of head; receives sensory input for touch and body position

temporal lobe

portion of cerebral cortex roughly above ears; includes auditory areas each receiving info primarily from opposite ear.

occipital lobe

portion of cerebral cortex at back of head; includes areas that receive info from visual fields

motor cortex

area at rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, rather, they are are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering thinking and speaking

plasticity

brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experiences

neurogenesis

formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

large band of neural fibers connecting 2 brain hemispheres and carrying messages between

left hemisphere

makes quick, literal interpretations of language, speech, comprehension, arithmetic, and writing.

right hemisphere

controls attention, memory, reasoning, and problem solving, emotion, music, visual-spatial skills, body-image, dreams, and awareness.

split brain research

refers to research and insights garnered from studying patients whose their corpus callosum, a bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain are severed

cognitive neuroscience

subfield of neuroscience that studies the biological processes that underlie human cognition, especially in regards to the relation between brain structures, activity, and cognitive functions.

dual processing

principle that info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brains natural mode of info processing for many functions

behavioral genetics

the study of the manner in which genetic variation affects psychological phenotypes (traits), including cognitive abilities, personality, mental illness, and social attitudes.

heredity

genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

chromosomes

thread like structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

DNA

complex molecule containing the genetic info that makes up the chromosomes

Genes

biochemical units of hereditary that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

Genome

complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organisms chromosomes

Identical (monozygotic) twins

develop from single fertilized egg that splits into 2, making 2 genetically identical organisms

fraternal (dizygotic) twins

develop from separate fertilized eggs. genetically no closer than brothers and sisters but share prenatal environment.

twin studies

studies conducted on identical or fraternal twins. They aim to reveal the importance of environmental and genetic influences for traits, phenotypes, and disorders

heritability

proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. trait may vary depending on range of populations and environments studied

epigenetics

“above” or “in addition to” genetics: the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occurs without DNA change

mutation

a permanent change in the genetic material of an organism.

sleep

periodic loss of consciousness as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia or hibernation

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

Sleep Stages

the stages of nocturnal sleep as distinguished by physiological measures

REM

rapid eye movement sleep; recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. (AKA paradoxical sleep, muscles are paralyzed but other body systems are still active)

NREM 1

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep, transition from awake to asleep 5-10 minutes

NREM 2

body temperature drops and heart rate slows, brain produces sleep spindles last about 20 minutes

NREM 3

muscles relax, blood pressure and breathing rate drop, deepest sleep occurs

Alpha waves

relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

delta waves

large slow, brain waves associated with the deep sleep of NREM 3