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Variable
Any characteristic (quality or quantity) recorded for each case in a dataset.
Explanatory Variable
A variable used to help explain or predict values of another variable.
Response Variable
A variable whose values are predicted or explained by another variable.
Categorical Variable
Divides cases into groups, placing each case into exactly one of two or more categories.
Quantitative Variable
Measures or records a numerical quantity for each case.
Ordinal Variable
A categorical variable with natural, ordered categories where the distances between categories are not meaningful.
Sampling Bias
Occurs when the method of selecting a sample causes it to differ from the population in a relevant way.
Selection Bias
Introduced by selecting individuals or groups such that proper randomization is not achieved.
Survival Bias
The logical error of focusing only on those that made it past a selection process, overlooking those that did not.
Participation Bias
Phenomenon where survey results become non-representative due to participants disproportionately possessing certain traits.
Random Sampling
A sampling method ensuring that every unit has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Controlled Experiment
An experiment where the researcher actively controls one or more of the explanatory variables.
Observational Study
A study where the researcher observes variables as they naturally exist without active control.
Placebo Effect
When subjects experience perceived benefits from a treatment they believe is effective, regardless of the treatment's actual efficacy.
Blinding
In experiments, preventing participants (single-blind) or both participants and researchers (double-blind) from knowing which group participants are assigned to.
Confounding Variable
A third variable associated with both the explanatory and response variables, offering a plausible explanation for their association.
Continuous Variable
A quantitative variable that can take any value within a given range.
Discrete Variable
A quantitative variable that can take only specific values, often counts.
Skewness
A measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable.
Kurtosis
A measure of the 'tailedness' of the probability distribution of a real-valued random variable.
Normal Distribution
A probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, depicting the data distribution as a bell curve.
Outlier
A data point that significantly differs from other observations in a dataset.
Correlation
A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables are related.
Causation
A relationship where one event causes another event to occur.
Population
The entire group from which a sample may be drawn for a study.
Sample
A subset of a population used to represent the group in statistical analysis.