PSYC 2301: Chapter 07 - Cognition, Language, and Intelligence

In these flashcards, it is all the terms found in the Mastering the World of Psychology book.

Cognition

Refers collectively to the processes of acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information

Imagery

Mental representation of a sensory experience: visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory, or tactile.

• Images are helpful in learning or maintaining motor skills.

  • The same brain areas are activated whether one is physically performing or mentally rehearsing a task.

Concepts

• Mental categories used to represent a class or group of objects, people, events, etc.

• Help organize thinking.

• Assist ability to think and communicate with speed and efficiency.

Formal Concept

Clearly defined by a set of ruled, a formal definition, or a classification system; usually acquired through formal education.

Natural Concept

Acquired through everyday perceptions and experiences, more personal and more subjective in nature.

Prototype

When using natural concepts, we envision an example which contains common or typical features, fro example, a type of animal is a dog.

Exemplars

More individual examples or instances stored in memory from personal experiences, for instance, a Pug (being a type of dog).

Decision Making

Process of considering alternatives and choosing among them.

• Bounded Rationality

Bounded Rationality

• Boundaries or limitations around the decision-making process prevent it from being entirely objective or based solely on logic.

• We often base decisions on strategies, schemas and educated guesses as well as external influences.

Elimination By Aspects

• Alternatives are evaluated against criteria that have been ranked according to importance.

• Prioritizing, process of elimination; apartment.

Heuristic

A “rule of thumb” derived from experience, hx of successful application; something learned.

• No guarantee of its accuracy or usefulness.

• A mental shortcut.

• “The right way to do things.”

Availability Heuristic

A rule stating that the perceived probability of an event corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mind.

Representativeness Heuristics

A decision strategy based on how closely a new situation resembles a familiar one.

Framing

The manner in which information is presented; emphasizing either a potential gain or a potential loss as outcome, i.e., advertisements.

Intuition

Rapidly formed judgments based on “gut feelings” or “instincts.”

• Can interfere with logical, highly subjective.

Anchoring

• Overestimation of the importance of a single factor in the presence of additional important factors; ignoring or downplaying other relevant or important factors.

• Credit card minimum payment

  • Ex: focusing more on car monthly payment and ignoring other important details.

Problem Solving

Thoughts and actions required to achieve a goal not readily attainable by employing heuristics.

• Ex: comparing a problem to others encountered in the past, similarity of situation.

  Or by,

• Working backwards for example

  • Starting with the desired goal and working backwards to the current condition, i.e., planning a trip.

Means-end Analysis

• The current position is compared with the desired goal.

• A series of steps is formulated to close the gap between the goal and the current position i.e., working towards your term paper.

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem.

• e.g., mathematical formula; flowchart

Developing Functional Fixedness

Failure to use familiar objects in novel ways to solve problems; not being creative or innovative.

• Using a rigid mental set or “mind set”. Not allowing for new ideas or approaches.

Confirmation Bias

Focusing your attention to information that confirms preexisting beliefs about the best way to solve a problem.

Artificial Intelligence

Programming computer systems or other machinery to simulate human thinking in solving problems, making judgments, and coming to decisions.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)

Computer systems intended to mimic physiological processes of the human brain.

Language

Communicating thoughts and feelings:

• Using a system of socially shared but arbitrary symbols (sounds, signs, or written symbols).

• Arranged according to rules of grammar.

Psycholinguistics

• Study of how language is acquired, produced, and used.

• How sounds and symbols of language are translated into meaning.

Components of Language

• Phonemes

• Morphemes

• Syntax

• Semantics

• Pragmatics

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in a spoken language, could be a single letter.

Morphemes

Smallest units of meaning in a spoken language.

Syntax

Rules for arranging and combining words to form phrases and sentences.

Semantics

Meaning derived from morphemes, words, and sentences.

Pragmatics

Patterns of intonation and social rules associated with language.

Animal Language

• Most animal species studied are limited to motor responses from communication.

• However, some bird species such as parrots are capable of making humanlike speech sounds.

• Chimpanzees have been taught to communicate using sign language or symbols.

• Kanzi: the chimpanzee with advanced understanding of spoken language.

• Overall, however, animal lack the capacity for true language.

Duality of Patterning

Phonemes are combined in rule-governed patterns to create words; words are combined in rule-governed patterns to create sentences.

Productivity

A finite number of sounds is used to produce an infinite number of unique utterances.

Arbitrariness

There is no meaningful link between an object, event, or thought and the way it is expressed phonologically.

Interchangeability

Any sound that can be heard can be reproduced.

Specialization

Language sounds are used only for communication.

Displacement

Utterances can be about objects and events that are not present.

Cultural Transmission

A social environment is required for language learning; it does not develop on its own.

Prevarication

Language can express ideas that are untrue.

Reflexiveness

Language can describe itself.

Advantage of Learning a Second Language

Better executive control skills.

• Ability to suppress impulsive responses to verbal tasks and think more carefully about them.

• The more you know about your first language, the easier it will be for you to learn another language.

• Proficiency, however, matters.

Proficiency

Learning a second Language at an earlier age generally results in a higher level of proficiency.

• More likely to speak with a appropriate accent (due to changes in Broca’s area).

• There is no age limit to acquiring a second language providing the individual being determined to do so.

Intelligence

It is your ability to:

• Understand complex ideas

• Adapt effectively to the environment

• Learn from experience

• Engage in various forms of reasoning

• Overcome obstacles through mental effort

• Exercise logic

Charles Spearman

• If you’re smart in one area, you’ll tend to be smart overall.

• Intelligence is composed of a general ability: g.

  • G underlines all intellectual functions.

• Influence can be seen in IQ tests such as the Standford-Binet.

Louis Thurstone

• Rejected Spearman’s notion of g

• Proposed 7 primary mental abilities

  • Verbal Comprehension

  • Numerical Ability

  • Spatial Relations

  • Perceptual Speed

  • Memory

  • Reasoning

Howard Gardner

• Eight forms of intelligence or “frames of mind”

• Viewed all forms of intelligence as equally important

• Evaluated how intelligence is valued and perceived in other cultures

Robert Sternberg

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Achievement Tests

Tap into knowledge and skills acquired through experiences such as formal education.

• Norm referenced

• Criterion referenced

Norm Referenced

Compare to other students of the same grade.

Criterion Referenced

Compare against an established standard.

Aptitude Tests

Predict future performance in a particular setting or on a specific task, SAT, ACT, ASVAB (military)

Intelligence Tests

Measure general intellectual ability.

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield consistent results.

Validity

Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure.

Standardization

• Establishing norms for comparing the scores of people who will take the test in the future.

  • Norms: age-based averages

• Administering tests using a prescribed standard procedure.

• Emphasis on applicability.

Culture-Fair Intelligence Test

• Designed to minimize cultural bias.

• Questions do not penalize individuals whose cultural experiences or language differs from that of the mainstream or dominant culture.

• Achievement: ability vs. effort

Jorge Sanchez

Was an advocate in addressing cultural bias in intelligence testing.

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

• Developed in first intelligence test.

• Assessed intellectual potential of schoolchildren.

• Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

  • Mental age

Mental Age

Based on number of items a child got correct compared with average correct number by children of various ages.

Louis Terman

• Revised the Binet-Simon test

• Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scale

• Made use of William Stern’s concept of intelligence quotient

• Compares chronological age and mental age results

• Developed formula for calculating IQ

David Wechsler

Described intelligence as “the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with their environment.”

• Developed the first individual intelligence test for individuals over age 16.

• Scores are based on how much an individual deviates from the average score for adults.

  • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)

  • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)

    • Consists of 5 verbal and 10 nonverbal subtests

Normal Curve

• Bell-shaped distribution

• Majority of the scores cluster around the mean (average)

• Average IQ score arbitrarily assigned the score of 100

Termin’s “Gifted” Study

• Studied 1528 people with IQs from 135 to 200

• Compared to the general population, high-IQ individuals:

  • Have better mental health

  • Earn more academic degrees

  • Achieve higher occupational status and higher income

  • Are better-adjusted personally and socially

  • Are healthier

Intellectual Disability

Subnormal intelligence reflected by:

• IQ below 70

• Severely deficient adaptive functioning

Causes

• Brain injury, anomalies

• Chromosomal abnormalities

• Chemical deficiencies

• Hazards present during prenatal developmental

Degrees of Intellectual Disability

Formerly known as Mental Retardation.

• Mild: IQ 55-70

• Moderate: IQ 40-54

• Severe: IQ 25-39

• Profound: IQ < 25

Heritability Index (Genetic or Biological Perspective)

The degree to which a characteristic is estimated to be influenced by heredity (genetics). The Twins Early Development Study suggests 0.34 to 0.42 for intelligence and even up to 0.70.

Minnesota Twins Study

Identical twins obtain similar scores on IQ tests, even when raised apart.

Scarr and Weinberg (1976)

• An enriched environment can notify IQ Early educational experiences can affect intellectual development even into the adult years.

• study involved 140 African-American and interracial children adopted by highly educated, upper-middle-class white American families.

• Supports the nurturing perspective.

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to apply knowledge about emotions to everyday life, including:

• Personal aspect of EI: awareness of an understanding our emotions

• Understanding mood changes

• Appropriate emotional expression

• Interpersonal aspect of EI: Self-motivation empathy, ability to handle personal relationships

• Ability to manage one’s own emotions

Creativity

Can be thought of as the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions.

• High intelligence does not necessarily mean high creativity

Divergent Thinking

Ability to produce multiple ideas, answers or solutions to a problem for which there is no agreed-on solution; brainstorming.

Convergent Thinking

Consists of solving precisely defined, logical problems for which there is a known correct answer; bringing together multiple ideas, options.