Ch 2: Aristotle and Plato

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theory of forms

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everything in the natural world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract

  • reality consists of abstract ideas or forms that correspond to all objects

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forms

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pure, abstract realities that are unchanging and timeless and are knowable

ex. chairs, cats

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40 Terms

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theory of forms

everything in the natural world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract

  • reality consists of abstract ideas or forms that correspond to all objects

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forms

pure, abstract realities that are unchanging and timeless and are knowable

ex. chairs, cats

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analogy of the divided line

  • there is a hierarchy of understanding

  • imagining is the lowest form of understanding because it is based on images

  • beliefs do not constitute knowledge

  • highest form of thinking involves embracing the forms themselves

  • true understanding or knowledge results from understanding an abstract form

    → “form of the good”

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allegory of the cave

  • individuals who live their lives in accordance with the shadows of reality provided by sensory experience instead of according to the true reality beyond sensory experience

  • shadow = lowest form of understanding

  • imagine being in a cave and making your way out into the daylight

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reminiscence theory of knowledge

  • knowledge is attained by remembering the experiences

  • knowledge is innate and attained by introspection

  • all knowledge comes from reminiscence

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introspection

careful examination of one’s subjective experiences

  • inner understanding

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Plato

  • forms existed independently of nature

  • ignore sensory experiences

  • turn inward to thoughts

  • rationalist

  • knowledge exists independent of nature

  • logic and mathematics

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Aristotle

  • essences existed but become known by studying nature

  • sensory information more important

  • empiricism and rationalism

  • examine nature directly

  • nature and knowledge are inseparable

  • observation and classification

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material cause

the kind of matter of which a thing is made

ex. the fence is made of wood

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formal cause

particular form, or patter, of a thing

ex. given wood is in an arch

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efficient cause

force that transforms the material thing into a certain form

ex. the energy of the builder

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final cause

purpose for which a thing exists

ex. a fence built to keep an area secure

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teleology

everything in nature exists for a purpose

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entelechy

purpose for a thing, or its function

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Scala naturae

nature is arranged in a hierarchy ranging from neutral matter to the unmoved mover

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unmoved mover

this gives nature its purpose, or final cause, but was itself uncaused

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vegetative (or nutritive) soul

possessed by plants, allows growth, intake of nutrition, and reproduction

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sensitive soul

  • possessed by animals but not plants

  • responds to environment, experience, pleasure & pain, memory

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rational soul

  • possessed only by humans

  • has the functions of other two souls

  • along with thinking or rational thought

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sensation

  • first step in acquiring knowledge

  • senses provide information about the environment: sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell

  • perception was explained by motion of objects that stimulate the senses

  • our senses can give an accurate representation of environment

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common sense

mechanism that coordinates the information from all the senses

  • located in the heart

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passive reason

practical utilization of the information provided by the common sense

  • doesn’t result in understanding

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active reason

  • highest form of thinking

  • understanding of principles, or essences, from synthesized sensory experiences

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remembering

spontaneous recollection of something that has been previously experienced

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recall

involves an actual mental search for a past experience

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laws of association

laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory

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laws of contiguity

when we think of something, we also tend to think of things we experienced at the time

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law of similarity

when we think of something, we tend to think of things similar to it

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law of contrast

when we think of something, we also tend to think of things that are its oppositel

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law of frequency

the more often experiences occur together, the stronger their association will be

ex. thunder and lightning

ex. camping and campfire

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associationism

belief that mental phenomena, such as learning, remembering, and imagining, can be explained in terms of the laws of association

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Plato’s beliefs regarding the nature of the soul

  • had a rational component that was immortal

  • courageous → emotional or spirited

  • appetitive

  • humans live in a state of conflict

  • body has appetites (needs) that must be met and have a motivational role in daily life

  • have varied emotions

  • suppress the needs of the body and concentrate on rational pursuits

  • control impulses

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Plato’s belief on sleep and dreams

individuals are unable to rationally control their appetites when asleep

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Plato’s influence on the development of science

  • ideas of mathematics and logical inquiry have shaped science

  • divided the human into a body which was material and imperfect, and a mind (soul) which contained pure knowledge

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imagination

pondering of the images retained from past experiences

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Aristotle's beliefs on imagination and dreaming

  • sensations create memories that last beyond the experience

  • retention = memory

  • dreaming → images of past experiences, dreams are often activities we have recently engaged in

  • dreams may predict future events

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golden mean

  • Aristotle

  • people are to avoid excesses and live a life of moderation

    • rational control of one’s appetites

ex. abstinence and self-indulgence

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Aristotle’s view on motivation and emotion

  • human behaviour is motivated by appetites

  • action is directed at satisfaction

  • internal states

  • character is determined by ability to control

  • emotion provides a motive for acting

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physis

primary element from which anything was made

  • elements: water, fire, earth, air

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essence

That indispensable characteristic of a thing that gives it its unique identity.