Ch 2: Aristotle and Plato

theory of forms

everything in the natural world is a manifestation of a pure form (idea) that exists in the abstract

• reality consists of abstract ideas or forms that correspond to all objects

forms

pure, abstract realities that are unchanging and timeless and are knowable

ex. chairs, cats

analogy of the divided line

• there is a hierarchy of understanding

• imagining is the lowest form of understanding because it is based on images

• beliefs do not constitute knowledge

• highest form of thinking involves embracing the forms themselves

• true understanding or knowledge results from understanding an abstract form

  → “form of the good”

allegory of the cave

• individuals who live their lives in accordance with the shadows of reality provided by sensory experience instead of according to the true reality beyond sensory experience

• shadow = lowest form of understanding

• imagine being in a cave and making your way out into the daylight

reminiscence theory of knowledge

• knowledge is attained by remembering the experiences

• knowledge is innate and attained by introspection

• all knowledge comes from reminiscence

introspection

careful examination of one’s subjective experiences

• inner understanding

Plato

• forms existed independently of nature

• ignore sensory experiences

• turn inward to thoughts

• rationalist

• knowledge exists independent of nature

• logic and mathematics

Aristotle

• essences existed but become known by studying nature

• sensory information more important

• empiricism and rationalism

• examine nature directly

• nature and knowledge are inseparable

• observation and classification

material cause

the kind of matter of which a thing is made

ex. the fence is made of wood

formal cause

particular form, or patter, of a thing

ex. given wood is in an arch

efficient cause

force that transforms the material thing into a certain form

ex. the energy of the builder

final cause

purpose for which a thing exists

ex. a fence built to keep an area secure

teleology

everything in nature exists for a purpose

entelechy

purpose for a thing, or its function

Scala naturae

nature is arranged in a hierarchy ranging from neutral matter to the unmoved mover

unmoved mover

this gives nature its purpose, or final cause, but was itself uncaused

vegetative (or nutritive) soul

possessed by plants, allows growth, intake of nutrition, and reproduction

sensitive soul

• possessed by animals but not plants

• responds to environment, experience, pleasure & pain, memory

rational soul

• possessed only by humans

• has the functions of other two souls

• along with thinking or rational thought

sensation

• first step in acquiring knowledge

• senses provide information about the environment: sight, hearing, taste, touch, smell

• perception was explained by motion of objects that stimulate the senses

• our senses can give an accurate representation of environment

common sense

mechanism that coordinates the information from all the senses

• located in the heart

passive reason

practical utilization of the information provided by the common sense

• doesn’t result in understanding

active reason

• highest form of thinking

• understanding of principles, or essences, from synthesized sensory experiences

remembering

spontaneous recollection of something that has been previously experienced

recall

involves an actual mental search for a past experience

laws of association

laws thought responsible for holding mental events together in memory

laws of contiguity

when we think of something, we also tend to think of things we experienced at the time

law of similarity

when we think of something, we tend to think of things similar to it

law of contrast

when we think of something, we also tend to think of things that are its oppositel

law of frequency

the more often experiences occur together, the stronger their association will be

ex. thunder and lightning

ex. camping and campfire

associationism

belief that mental phenomena, such as learning, remembering, and imagining, can be explained in terms of the laws of association

Plato’s beliefs regarding the nature of the soul

• had a rational component that was immortal

• courageous → emotional or spirited

• appetitive

• humans live in a state of conflict

• body has appetites (needs) that must be met and have a motivational role in daily life

• have varied emotions

• suppress the needs of the body and concentrate on rational pursuits

• control impulses

Plato’s belief on sleep and dreams

individuals are unable to rationally control their appetites when asleep

Plato’s influence on the development of science

• ideas of mathematics and logical inquiry have shaped science

• divided the human into a body which was material and imperfect, and a mind (soul) which contained pure knowledge

imagination

pondering of the images retained from past experiences

Aristotle's beliefs on imagination and dreaming

• sensations create memories that last beyond the experience

• retention = memory

• dreaming → images of past experiences, dreams are often activities we have recently engaged in

• dreams may predict future events

golden mean

• Aristotle

• people are to avoid excesses and live a life of moderation

  • rational control of one’s appetites

ex. abstinence and self-indulgence

Aristotle’s view on motivation and emotion

• human behaviour is motivated by appetites

• action is directed at satisfaction

• internal states

• character is determined by ability to control

• emotion provides a motive for acting

physis

primary element from which anything was made

• elements: water, fire, earth, air

essence

That indispensable characteristic of a thing that gives it its unique identity.