3. History of European Colonization: Chapter 3: the seventy years war (1744-1814)

overview: 1. the seven years war - Europe - india - america 2. the napoleonic wars - british expansion - the decolonization of latin america 3. the white settler colonies - canada - australia and new zealand - white settler colonies in the 19th and 20th century

first part of the second Hundred Years’ War

• Nine Years’ War (1688-97)

  • weakened the Netherlands

• Spanish Succession War (1700-1713)

  • Britain gained Gibraltar & Minorca from Spain

  • Britain gained Acadia from France

• Austrian Succession War (1740-1748)

  • france occupied Madras, but returns it to Britain

=> wars fought both in Europe and colonies

seventy years’ war

• second part 100 years war

• seven year’s war (1756-1763)

  1. europe

  2. india

  3. america

• the american independence war (1775-1783)

• the napoleonic wars (1803-1815)

  1. british expansion

  2. decolonization of latin america

the white settler colonies

• canada

• australia and new zealand

• white settler colonies in the 19th and 20th century

seven years’ war in Europe (1756-1763)

• the great change of partners

  • century-old enemies France and Austria (and Russia, changes camp during war)

    vs Britain (largest navy) and Prussia (largest land force)

• outcome

  • 900 000 - 1 400 000 deaths: first ‘world war’ (fought on different continents and massive impact on world)

  • change in the balance of power

the seven years’ war in india (britain)

• calcutta

  • british fortify calcutta against frensh

    • after the experience with madras in 1746-1748

  • bengal nawab (ruler) conquers calcutta

  • robert clive (clive of india) reconquers calcutta (jan 1757)

• bengal

  • clive supports new and dependent nawab

  • defeats the old nawab at plassey (june 1757)

  • defeats an indian coalition near buxar 1764

• ==> british conquest of bengal

other powers in india

• french

  • 1764 chandarnagar and pondichéry demilitarized (forced by brits to avoid repetition of what happened in 1740s)

• moghuls (dynasty ruled india at the time)

  • ex jahangir,…

  • Taj Mahal (mausuleum to belated queen)

  • second half 16th century - 17th century

  • decline after aurangzeb (+1707) = pursued more rigid religious policy (muslim) => Moghul empire declined but still kept on existing until 19th century

  • saw europeans as interesting trade partners, looked down on their producs

  • delhi sacked by persians is 1739 (nader shah = napoleon of persia)

  • delhi sacked by afghans in 1748-61 (ahmad shah durrani = founding father modern afghanistan)

• maratha empire

  • hindu empire in central india

  • defeated by afghans (battle of panipat 1761)

  • afghans: return to kabul after 1761

  • same period as 7 years’ war = britain was able to conquer because other powers had been weakened in india

seven years’ war in america

• 1754-1763: french and indian war

  • in particular: the control of the ohio country

• different approach

  • france: let the colonies fight for themselves

    • —> french colonies lacked naval support

  • britain: avoid military commitment on the European continent (french were stronger there)

    • —> british colonies had numerical superiority

• british victories:

  • 1758: louisbourg

  • 1759: Québec

  • 1760: montréal

• outcome

  • france loses Nouvelle france

    • choice between carribean and new france

  • everything east of mississipi river to britain

  • west of mississipi to spain

    • compensation for the loss of florida to britain

• future developments

  • florida again spanish in 1783

  • louisiana and florida in 1800 to france

  • 1803: napoleon sells louisiana to the United states

  • discussion about florida; spain cedes in 1819-1821

from BNA to USA

• resentment in BNA

  • london wants compensation after Seven Years’ War

    • protection against france & native americans

    • BNA pays fewer taxes than carribean colonies

  • BNA reply: “no taxation without representation’

• protest

  • tea act (1773): withdrawn after boston tea party

  • 1774: first continental congress (philadelphia)

  • summer of 1775: battle of bunker hill

• the independence war (1776-1783)

  • declaration of independence on july 4, 1776

Britain and Napoleon

• several conflicts between britain and france

• Egypt: shortcut to India (strategically and economically very important

  • French victory against Mamluks (Pyramids 21 july 1798)

  • british victory against french (nile 1-3 august 1798)

  • syrian expedition of france failed

• oceans

  • trafalgar (21 october 1805)

• metropoles occupied by france (either annexed by france or turned into public states, made his brothers kings)

• —> british conquests of new colonies (napoleon wasnt interested in the colonies)

  • pain eg trinidad (1797-1802)

  • netherlands eg cape colony and ceylon (permanent)

why british expansion in india?

• protection of trade and influence

• french threat, more imagined than real

british conquest india

• 1792 & 1799: mysore (tipu sultan)

• 1801: Awadh/Oudh

• 1803: delhi (moghuls)

• 1802ff & 1818: marathas & rajputs

• 1816: treaty with nepal gurkhas

—> conquests went in steps

reasons for british succes

• indian discord (castes, religions, ethnicities,…)

• british technological and military superiority

overview decolonization latin america

• first: french colony

  • saint domingue (haiti)

  • —> slaves’ insurrection

• then: spanish colonies

  • —> related to napoleonic wars in europe

• finally: portuguese colony

  • brazil (last)

• not: guyana & caribbean (decolonization not complete)

  • —> deterrence effect from haiti (other colonies shocked => preferred to remain colonies)

==> “first wave of decolonization”

hispaniola

• haiti

  • 1492-1697 spanish

  • 1697-1804 French

    • saint-domingue: richest colony in the world

    • insurrection under Toussaint L’Ouverture (1791-1803) = only successful slave insurrection in world history

    • Napoleon intervenes => Jean-Jacques Dessalines takes over rule (first emperor independent haiti)

    • 1804 independence

• dominican republic

  • for a while spanish

  • french

  • haitian

stereotype explanations haiti’s poverty

• nature: mountains and rainfall

  —> nonsense: in 18th century haiti was richest colony of the world

• natural disasters (earthquake 2010 = buildings in ruins, people living in the streets)

  —> less resistant but not main explanation

• black emperors

  —> “bad rulers” = “unable to create wealth and protect people”, racism, “incapable”

• voodoo

  —> racist stereotipicization = different religions in haiti turned into an image of horror and “bad religion” because Europeans were frustrated

==> to erase western role in poverty (deliberate amnesia)

french role haiti’s poverty

• deforrestation and erosion under the french = exhausted soil of haiti (on top of slavery exploitation)

• haiti’s debts to france after 1825 (to compensate for loss of colony) ==> by 1898 half of haiti’s government budget went to paying france and french banks, by 1914 that proportion climbed to 80 percent

haiti’s situation 19th and 20th century

• political: international isolation & military priority (afraid of invasion that could end independence) => a lot of huge fortresses can be found in haiti even though they have never had to be used

• social: new elite after disappearance of the white

• economic: decline of plantation economy => less income

foreign interference in haiti 20th century

• 1915-1935: US occupation (confirming trauma of foreign treath

• US support of dictators in the cold war and beyond papa doc and baby doc: françois & jean-claude duvalier = worst dictators during cold war, fully supported by US)

• neoliberal measures imposed by the IMF (Jean-Bertrand Aristide = good candidate for president <=> only got American and international support if he accepted neoliberal reforms that served Haiti but also US and western world ex basically banning import tariffs)

overview of decolonization Latin america

1. french colony

   • saint domingue (haiti)

     —> slaves’ insurrection

2. spanish colonies

   • related to napoleonic wars in europe

3. portuguese colony

   • brazil

<=> not: guyana & caribbean

• deterrence effect from haiti

spanish colonies (south america) decolonization

1. periphery

   • new granada: simon bolivar (north)

   • la plata: josé san martin (south)

2. center

   • lima: san martin and bolivar

   • new spain

general observations decolonization spanish colonies

• disintegration independent states

  —> great-colombia 1830 (colombia venezuela and exuador

  —> peru falls apart

  —> federal republic of central-ameri

• violence

  • between european powers

  • between europeans and colonials

  • between colonials

• interconnection

• continuity

new granada independence

• 1810: simon bolivar starts armed struggle

  • 1813: caracas (venezuela)

  • 1814: bogota (colombia)

• 1819: republic of great colombia

• 1830: disintegration of great-colombia

  • colombia

  • venezuala

  • ecuador

la plata and lima independence

• 1810: provisional junta in buenos aires

  • 1816: declaration of independent argentina

• 1817: josé de san martin crosses andes

  • 1818: conquers chile with bernardo O’higgins (irish)

• 1821: conquers lima

  • 1822: meeting with bolivar behind closed doors (unclear what is established)

  • peru pesident inter alia

    • martin (1821-22)

    • bolivar (1824-27)

  • 1825: republic bolivia

    • bolivar first president

new spain 2 parts (independence)

• mexico

  • 1810-1815: pro-napoleon insurrections

    • defeated by loyals to spanish throne

      —> remained with spain (not for long)

  • 1821: new spanish constitution (too liberal for elite in new spain)

    • conservative revolution

      —> independence

• federal republic of central-america (1823-1840)

  • disintegration due to

    • mexican interference

    • conflicts between conservatives and liberals

independence brazil

• 1808: portuguese king joao VI settles in Brazil

  • remains there after 1815

• 1821: joao returns to libon

  • restoration old balance between lisbon and brazil

  • dom pedro (son of joao) regent in brazil

• frustration in brazil

  • dom pedro supports nationalists

  • 1822: brazilian independence under emperor pedro

  —> independence under House of Braganza

violence during decolonization of latin amerca

• between european powers, especially France-britain

  • ex carribean (1793-96) and egypt (1798-1801

• between europeans and colonials

  • in 9/20 independent countries

  • colonials often supported by other europeans

    • la fayette (french officer) in US

    • britain supports haiti and spanish colonies

• between colonials

  • loyalists (to the british throne) and revolutionaries in the US

  • slave insurrection in haiti

• most quiet country: Brazil

interconnection events decolonization america

• observation and participation in BNA/US

  • dominican (haitian) mulattos in french army BNA

  • south american revolutionaries

• direct influence

  • US support to haitian insurrection in 1790s

  • haitian asylum to bolivar (2X)

• reverse consequences (independence war strengthens ties colony and metropole

  • canadian nation grows out of anti-revolutionarism

  • carribean landowners prefer colonial status-quo to repetition of haiti

continuity between colonial era and decolonial era america

• social:

  • elite: white and affluent minority

    • exceptions: US (majority) and haiti (black)

  • US and Brazil maintain slavery (only abolished in 19th century)

• political

  • empires (just like metropoles in Europe): haiti, brazil, mexico

  • exception: constitutional confederation in the US

    • other confederations fail

• economic

  • produced goods, free trade,…

the white settler colonies

• canada

• australia and New Zealand

• white settler colonies in the 19th and 20th century

the US and canada

• british since 1764 but large french population

• US (revolutionaries wanted to include canada in independence claims) attempts to conquer north (1775-1777)

  • took montreal and attacked quebec

  • not successful in mobilizing french population (thought they were better of under British)

    —> britain had respected language, religion and property

• continuing hostility (british colonies in canada and newly independent US)

  • britain (canada) supported native americans (enemies US)

  • britain prevented trade US-france

• new failed invasion by US in 1812-1815 War (britain was involved in napoleonic wars)

developments in canada in end 18th century, first decades of 19th century

• immigration of 40.000 to 60.000 loyalists

  • 18th c: majority of inhabitants of french origin

  • mid 19th century: majority of british origin

• constitutional act (1791)

  • to accommodate english-speaking settlers

  • division of the province of quebec (still today)

    • canada west/upper canada (ontario): english law (named after river)

    • canada east/lower canada (quebec): french law

durham report (1838)

• rebellion of 1837 in the canadas (BNA)

  • house of assembly neglected by london governor

  • like US two generations earlier (“no taxation without representation”)

• lord durham (experienced politician) detects two problems

  1. ethnic conflict between french and english

     • 1840: act of union (united province of canada)

     • encouraged immigraiton from britain to canada (countering the french speaking majority)

  2. people’s representation and control

     • power and control to legislative assembly (remained british colony)

     • 1848: responsible government in nova scotia

==> everything happens gradually —> success of canada?

responsible government in canada timeline (after durham report)

governments responsible to parliament rather than to monarch or the imperial government

• 1848: nova scotia

• 1849: province of canada

• 1851: prince edward island

• 1854: new brunswick

• 1855: newfoundland

creation of dominion of canada

• constitution act (1867

  • united province of canada (1840-) impracticable

  • three colonies formed into four provinces

    1. ontario

    2. quebec

    3. new brunswick

    4. nova scotia

  • canada: a federal dominion with own institutions

    • autonomous polity nominally under british sovereigbty

• later addtions inter alia:

  • 1871: british columbia

  • 1873: prince edward island

  • 1898: yukon

  • 1905: saskatchewan & alberta

why exploration of the pacific

• continuity with previous centuries (in 18th century)

  • also future centuries: africa (19th century)- poles (late 19th century, beginning 20th century) - space

• culture

  • fascination with the far away and the savage

• science (enlightenment)

  • myth of a large southern continent: terra australis

  • initially unable to travel longer distances due to scurvy => 1753: a treatise of the scurvy (vitamin C)

• political

  • great britain vs Dutch cape of good hope

  • france: loss of footholds in india and north america

early voyages in the pacific in 18th century

• Easter island

• Strait between asia & america: Vitus Bering

• falklands (britain)

• tahiti

• 1766: first frenchman who circumnavigated the globe

• George vancouver charted North america’s northwestern pacific coast regions

• Matthew flinders: brit circumnavigation of australia (gave it name instead of new holland)

the voyages of james cook

1. 1768-1771

   • mapped new zealand (circumnavigated)

   • landed at botany bay and claims land for britain (today: sydney) = kickstart british colonization of canada

2. 1772-1775

   • crossed antarctic circle and nearly encountered mainland antarctica

3. 1776-1779

   • again in pacific => more north

   • hawaii and coastline california-alaska

   • killed by hawaii locals on return

creation of australia

• need for new penal colony

  • BNA: 40.000 convicts by 1777 (after british defeat in american independence war they needed new prison)

• 1787: first ships with criminals to sydney

  • 26 january 1788: establishment of new penal colony

  • australia’s national day

• convicts liberated after some years

  • only 1/14 returns home, rest starts new life

  • 1828: for first time more free people than convicts

• 1868: last convicts’ transportation

==> “a nation of shoplifters”

australian society

• white colony

  • procreation (eight months on sea)

  • steep decline of population of 350.000 aboriginals

    • disease, resettlement, cultural disintegration

    • tasmania: regulated genocide (diseases deliberately introduced)

• economic development

  • land acquisitions from aboriginals

  • urban development (governor lachlan macquarie “founding father of australia”) => created sydney

  • sheep and gold

territorial expansion australia

• initially (1788): New South Wales

• eventually: six colonies

  • inter alia

    • van diemen’s land (tasmania): 1803 settled, 1825 colony

    • 1829: britain claims western part of australia

    • 1859: queensland

• unification

  • 1901: commonwealth of australia

  • 1908-1927: construction of canberra (capital territory)

• growing autonomy

  • canada: responsible government and dominion

New zealand timeline

• 1839: new zealand company

  • promotion of settlement and trade

• 1840: treaty of waitangi with maori chiefs

  • new zealand as bi-cultural society but

    • differences between english and maori versions

    • ignored by settlers and courts

• maori wars 1845-1847 & 1860-1872

  • maori population:

    • 1841: 70000-90000 vs 2000 europeans

    • 1896: 42000 vs 701000 europeans

pacific colonies

• tahiti

  • 1797: british missionaries

  • 1842: french military ship annexes island

• new caledonia

  • annexed for france in 1853

  • major prison colony (10500 convicts in 1901)

  • major settlers’ colony (54000 french in 1983

• new guinea: netherlands, brits and german (kaiser wilhelmsland)

• …

migration in white settler colonies

• 1500-1783

  • 1,4 million European migrants to the new world

• 1815-1914

  • 22,6 million people left the british isles

  • 62% to the US

  • mainly Irish

• 1918-

  • white australia policy (1901-1949/73) = white people more easily allowed in Australia

  • 1922: canada attracts migrants (empire settlement act) = especially farmers, agriculturalists, bio-engineers,…

  • 1924: immigration quotas in the US

responsible government white settler colonies

governments are responsible to parliament rather than to the monarch or the imperial government

• 1848-1855: canada

• other white settler colonies

  • 1855: victoria

  • 1856: new south wales, new zealand, south australia, tasmania

  • 1872: cape colony

  • 1890: western australia

  • 1893: natal

  • 1906 transvaal

  • 1907: orange river colony

semi-independent polities under british sovereignty (dominions)

• 1867: canada

• 1907: australia, new zealand and newfoundland

• 1910: south africa (also white settler colony)

• 1922: irish free state (until 1937)

autonomous communities within Empire 1926

• 1926: second balfour declaration: dominions ‘equal in status’ to metropoles so ± independence

  —> first about palestine and jews

• 1931: statute of wistminster: legal status (dominions independent states with great ties to england)

commonwealth of nations

• 1949

• now 56 member states

interconnectedness commonwealth

• plethora of networks

  • family, business, education, press, sport,…

• many shared experiences => common history, identity

  • wars & crises

• progressive political culture (in white settler colonies)

  • responsible government & dominions

  • secret ballot: australia 1850s, 10 years before UK

  • female suffrage: New Zealand 1893, UK 1918

  • universal male suffrage: NZ 1893, 1U 1902, UK 1948

gradual erosion white settler colonies

• collapse of the concept of imperial citizenship

  • 1935: irish free state asserted its own citizenship

  • canada follows in 1946

  • Australia, New Zealand and South Africa follow 1948-49

• leaving the commonwealth: Ireland 1949, South africa 1961

• “Queen of Canada” 1952, “Queen of Australia” 1973

• 1965: maple leaf flag instead of union jack

• 1982: canadian constitution

• present-day debates