Chapter 4: Motivation Theories

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Definition

Maslow proposed that human motivation is driven by a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization. Lower needs must be largely satisfied before higher needs become dominant.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Physiological Needs

Basic survival needs such as food, drink, shelter, sleep, and other bodily requirements. In organizations, this can relate to a basic salary that allows an employee to live.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Safety & Security Needs

Needs for security, stability, and protection from physical or economic harm, plus assurance that basic needs will continue to be met (e.g., safe working conditions, job security).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Social Needs

Needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. In the workplace, this includes good relationships with colleagues, feeling part of a team, and social interaction.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Esteem Needs

Needs for self-respect, achievement, autonomy, status, recognition, and attention. Employees want to feel valued, respected, and seen as competent.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - Self-Actualization Needs

Needs related to growth, personal development, and achieving one's full potential. At work, this can mean challenging tasks, creativity, and opportunities for advancement and self-development.

Maslow - Lower-Order vs Higher-Order Needs

Lower-order needs (physiological, safety, social) are mostly satisfied by external factors (pay, security, relationships), while higher-order needs (esteem, self-actualization) are mainly satisfied internally (feeling of achievement, growth).

McGregor's Theory X - View of Employees

Theory X assumes employees dislike work, have little ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be closely supervised and controlled. They are seen as mainly motivated by money and security.

McGregor's Theory Y - View of Employees

Theory Y assumes employees enjoy work, are capable of self-direction, seek and accept responsibility, and can be creative. They are motivated by self-fulfillment and internal rewards.

McGregor's Theory X & Y - Managerial Implications

Managers with a Theory X view tend to be authoritarian and controlling, while those with a Theory Y view use participation, empowerment, and trust to motivate employees.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory - Overview

Herzberg argued that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction come from two different sets of factors: hygiene factors (context of work) and motivators (content of work). Removing dissatisfaction does not automatically create satisfaction.

Herzberg - Hygiene Factors (Definition)

Hygiene factors relate to the context of the job and are extrinsic (e.g., supervision, company policy, salary, working conditions, relationships, status, security). They prevent dissatisfaction but do not create strong motivation.

Herzberg - Motivators (Definition)

Motivators relate to the content of the job and are intrinsic (e.g., achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth). They increase job satisfaction and motivation.

Herzberg - Role of Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors must be adequate to avoid dissatisfaction. However, even if hygiene factors are good, employees may still not be highly motivated if motivators are missing.

Herzberg - Role of Motivators

To truly motivate employees, managers should focus on enriching jobs with motivators such as more responsibility, meaningful work, opportunities for growth, and recognition.

McClelland's Three-Needs Theory - Overview

McClelland proposed that three acquired needs drive motivation at work: need for achievement (nAch), need for affiliation (nAff), and need for power (nPow). Different people have different dominant needs.

McClelland - Need for Achievement (nAch)

Drive to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards, and strive to succeed. People high in nAch like challenging goals, personal responsibility, and feedback on performance.

McClelland - Need for Affiliation (nAff)

Desire for friendly, close interpersonal relationships. People high in nAff want to be liked, prefer cooperative situations, and avoid conflict and confrontation.

McClelland - Need for Power (nPow)

Need to influence or control the behavior of others so that they behave in ways they would not otherwise. It involves a desire to have impact, be influential, and enjoy being in positions of authority.

McClelland - Managerial Relevance

Managers can better motivate employees by identifying which need (achievement, affiliation, or power) is dominant and shaping tasks, feedback, and roles accordingly.

Goal-Setting Theory - Definition

Goal-setting theory states that specific and challenging goals, when accepted and supported by feedback, lead to higher levels of motivation and performance than vague or easy goals.

Goal-Setting Theory - Effective Goals

Effective goals are specific, difficult but attainable, and time-bound. "Do your best" goals are less motivating than clear, challenging targets.

Goal-Setting Theory - How Goals Affect Motivation (Attention & Effort)

Goals direct employees' attention and action toward goal-relevant activities and encourage them to put in higher levels of effort.

Goal-Setting Theory - How Goals Affect Motivation (Persistence & Planning)

Goals increase persistence in the face of difficulty and stimulate the development of action plans for how to achieve the goal.

Goal-Setting Theory - Managerial Implications

Managers can increase motivation by setting clear, challenging goals, involving employees in goal setting, and providing feedback on progress and results.

Job Characteristics Model (JCM) - Overview

The Job Characteristics Model (Hackman & Oldham) states that five core job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback) influence critical psychological states and lead to higher motivation, performance, and satisfaction.

Job Characteristics Model - Skill Variety

The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities, skills, and talents. High skill variety makes work more interesting and motivating.

Job Characteristics Model - Task Identity

The degree to which a job requires completing a whole, identifiable piece of work from start to finish. Higher task identity increases sense of ownership and meaning.

Job Characteristics Model - Task Significance

The degree to which a job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people. High task significance makes the work feel important and worthwhile.

Job Characteristics Model - Autonomy

The degree of freedom, independence, and discretion an employee has in scheduling work and deciding how to carry it out. More autonomy increases responsibility and intrinsic motivation.

Job Characteristics Model - Feedback

The degree to which the job itself provides direct and clear information about performance effectiveness. Good feedback helps employees know how well they are doing and what to improve.

Job Characteristics Model - Key Employee Questions

Key psychological questions behind JCM are: Do I use different skills and talents? Do I complete a whole job? Is my job important? Am I able to make decisions? Do I know how effective I am?

Equity Theory - Definition

Equity theory (Adams) proposes that employees compare their input-outcome ratio (what they put in vs what they get out) to the ratios of others. Perceived fairness or unfairness affects their motivation and behavior.

Equity Theory - Inputs vs Outcomes

Inputs include effort, experience, skills, education, and time. Outcomes (outputs) include pay, recognition, promotions, and benefits. Employees mentally compare their ratio of inputs to outcomes with that of relevant others.

Equity Theory - Perceived Equity

If employees believe their input-outcome ratio is fair compared with others, they feel equity and are more likely to maintain their current level of effort and performance.

Equity Theory - Perceived Inequity

If employees feel under-rewarded or over-rewarded relative to others, they perceive inequity and may adjust their behavior (e.g., reduce effort, improve quality, leave the job, or try to change outcomes).

Equity Theory - Managerial Implications

Managers should ensure fair and consistent treatment, transparent reward systems, and clear communication to reduce perceptions of inequity and negative reactions.

Expectancy Theory - Definition

Expectancy theory (Vroom) states that motivation depends on three relationships: expectancy (effort → performance), instrumentality (performance → outcome), and valence (value of outcome). People act based on expected outcomes and how attractive they are.

Expectancy Theory - Expectancy (Effort-Performance Link)

Expectancy is the perceived probability that a certain amount of effort will lead to a certain level of performance. If employees believe "If I work hard, I can perform well," expectancy is high.

Expectancy Theory - Instrumentality (Performance-Outcome Link)

Instrumentality is the belief that performing at a certain level will lead to a specific outcome or reward. If employees believe "If I perform well, I will get the reward," instrumentality is high.

Expectancy Theory - Valence (Value of Outcome)

Valence is the importance or attractiveness of the reward or outcome to the individual. Even if rewards are offered, motivation will be low if employees do not value those rewards.

Expectancy Theory - When Motivation is High

Motivation is highest when expectancy, instrumentality, and valence are all high: employees believe they can perform, trust that performance will lead to outcomes, and value those outcomes.