AP Pyschology Unit 2: Cognition

Information Processing Model

compares mind to the computer

encoding

input is encoded when sensory receptors send impules that are registered by neurons

store

putting information in our brain

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage upon demand

Multi-store model

describes memory as 3-part system that includes: sensory memory, short-term and long-term memory

sensory memory

A type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less; acts as breif stimuli through senses

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; captures for fraction of a sec

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli for abt 3-4 seconds (lets brain process spoken language)

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten typically for 15-30 secs (limited capacity)

short term mem examples

guides to a destination

long-term memory

stage where info is stored indefinitley with virtuall unlimited capacity; long-term retention for stuff

long term memory example

Recalling how to ride a bike, even after years of not having done the activity.

working memory

type of SHORT TERM memory that holds and manipulates info (short-term and long-term combine)

working memory example

as you cook, working memory is engaged to hold on sequence of steps and measuring ingridients

central executive

control center of working memory; manages attention, coordinates other components and integrates info from our senses

phonological loop

component of working memory responsible for processing/storing verbal+auditory information; has 2 parts: temp. holding sounds and words, and rehearsing info through vocal repetition

Visuospatial sketchpad

component of working memory that hand;es visual and spatial information, allows for temporary storage and manipulation of images (navigation, geometry, visual tracking)

long-term potientiation

long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from simultaneous activation; considered one of the major cellular mechanisms that underlies memory and learning

Working memory challenge

we will demonstrate the limited capacity and active processing nature of working memory through tasks (number recall, word chain)

automatic processing

the unconcious encoding of information abt space,time freq and other well-learned tasks; routine of driving home from work

effortful processing

type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory; proces of learning languages

Levels of processing model

proposes that depth at which info is thought abt affects how well you remember it; study more remember more

shallow encoding

basic level of processing that focuses n surface characteristics of info like sound of words; involves minimal attention and leads to fragile memories

episodic memory

type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events

autobiographical memory

type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from individuals life (combines episodic and semantic)

semantic memories

general personal information and knowledge that defines the self

implicit memories

type of memory does not require concious thought (fingers moving automatically to keys)

procedural memory

type of IMPLICIT memory that involved recall of how to perform tasks automatically (brushing ur teeth)

prospective memory

remembering to perform planned action or recall planned intention (remembering to pick up son from school at night)

massed practice "cramming"

cramming info over short period of times

spacing effect "distributed practice"

phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than crammed once

maintenance rehearsal

learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing info to keep it in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

memory technique that involved deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting to existing knowledge

retreival cues

stimuli that helps being previously learned info to mind, plays important role in process of retreiving memories (external or internal cues)

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned when presented (familiarity and identification)

context-dependant memory

Process where people remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it (physical surroundings and similar conditions)

state-dependant memory

The heightened ability to remember information when our internal state of conciousness matches those of when we learned/retained the information.

mood-congruent memory

tendency to recall info that is consistant with current mood

serial position effect

tendency to remember items at beginning and end of a list

primacy effect

cognitive phenomenon where people remembers items presented at beginning of list better than after

recency effect

same thing as primacy, except they remember end of list better

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information through testing

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's thought process ("i learn better visually")

forgetting curve

graphical representation @ rate where memory fades over time

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

proactive interference

when older memories inhibit ability to learn and remember new info

retroactive interference

occurs when new learning impairs recall of previously encoded info

tip-of-tounge phenomenon

common memory experience where someone feels confident that they know a word or name but cant immediately recall it

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined, while retaining factual knowledge

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood, typically before 3-4 years

alzheimers

progressive neurological disorder leads to memory loss, cognitive decline and behavioral changes

repression

keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

constructive memory

a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details; memories are not retreived but actively reconstructed

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

schemas

mental frameworks help us organize

perceptual set

tendency to precieve aspects we expect

Gestalt Psychology

a psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

Figure ground

ability to distinguish foreground from background

Binocular working cues

visual info needs both eyes to precieve distance and depth

retinal disparity

each eye sees slightly diff picture bc of position

convergence

when our eyes move inwards as we see objects closer

monocular depth cues

visual indicators of distance and space are perceived as one eye

relative clarity

if object is closer, it is clearer

relative size

if object is closer, it is perceived as larger

texture gradient

the way we perceive texture if objects are closer

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

interposition

when one object overlaps another leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

perceptual constancies

our brains ability yo see objects as unchanging even when image changes

bottom-up

detials to big picture

top-down

big picture to details

selective attention

focusing on specific aspect of info while ignoring others

cocktail party effect

focus on single convo n noisy environment

inattentional blindness

failure to notice unexpected thing in visual field

change blindness

failure to notice large changes in environment when change occurs

shape constancy

ability t percieve an object as having the same shape even if distance/angle changes

size constancy

perception that object remains same size when its distance changes

color constancy

ability to perceive colors of object as stable under lighting conditions

apparent movement

perception of motion when no actual movement