AP Psychology 2025 Unit 3 AP review

Stability and Change

Stability refers to traits and behaviors that remain constant throughout life; change refers to traits and behaviors that are more fluid and flexible

Continuous and Discontinuous Stages of Development

Continuity is gradual development; discontinuity is development in stages

Nature and Nurture

Nature is genetic inheritance; nurture is environmental factors

Longitudinal Study

Research in which the same people are restudied over time

Cross-Sectional Study

Research comparing people of different ages at one time

Teratogens

Agents (e.g., chemicals, viruses) that can harm the fetus during prenatal development

Maternal Illness

Illnesses contracted by the mother that may be transmitted to the newborn

Genetic Mutation

Permanent change in genetic material

Developmental Norms

Typical timeline of mental/physical growth in children

Rooting Reflex

Automatic turning of the head when cheek is touched

Visual Cliff

Lab test for depth perception in infants

Critical Period

Optimal time for development of certain skills; lack of exposure leads to impaired development

Imprinting

Early attachment formed in some animals during a critical period

Adolescence

Transition period from childhood to adulthood

Puberty

Period of sexual maturation

Primary Sex Characteristics

Body structures directly involved in reproduction

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Traits that develop during puberty not directly tied to reproduction

Menarche

First menstrual period

Spermarche

First ejaculation

Adulthood

Period marked by stability, decline in reproductive ability, sensory acuity, and reaction time

Menopause

Natural end of menstrual cycles in women

Sex

Either of the two biological categories of male or female

Gender

Culturally influenced roles, behaviors, and identities as male or female

Jean Piaget

Developed theory of four cognitive development stages

Schema

Concept/framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas

Accommodation

Adapting schemas to fit new information

Object Permanence

Understanding objects continue to exist even when not seen

Egocentrism

Inability to see things from another’s perspective

Reversibility

Understanding that things can be returned to original state

Conservation

Understanding quantity remains the same despite shape change

Theory of Mind

Understanding others’ mental states and intentions

Abstract Thinking

Ability to think logically about intangible concepts

Hypothetical Thinking

Considering "what if" possibilities

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Gap between what a child can do alone and with help

Scaffolding

Providing support to help learners reach higher abilities

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills

Dementia

Decline in thinking, memory, and behavior

Language

Spoken, written, or signed words and how they’re combined to convey meaning

Phoneme

Smallest sound unit in language

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaning in language

Grammar

System of rules that enables communication

Syntax

Rules for combining words into sentences

Semantics

Rules by which meaning is derived from words/sentences

Babbling Stage

Beginning at 4 months; infant makes spontaneous sounds

One-Word Stage

From about 1 year; child uses single words

Telegraphic Speech

Two-word sentences resembling telegrams ("go car")

Overgeneralization

Applying grammar rules too widely

Ecological Systems Theory

Development influenced by multiple nested environmental systems

Microsystem

Immediate environment with direct interactions (family, school)

Mesosystem

Connections between microsystems (e.g., home and school)

Exosystem

Indirect influences (e.g., parent’s job, media)

Macrosystem

Cultural context (e.g., values, politics)

Chronosystem

Influence of time and life events on development

Authoritarian

Parenting style: high demands, low responsiveness

Permissive

Parenting style: low demands, high responsiveness

Authoritative

Parenting style: high demands, high responsiveness

Attachment

Emotional bond between child and caregiver

Secure Attachment

Child distressed at separation but soothed on return

Insecurely Attached

Child has difficulty being comforted

Avoidant Attachment

Child avoids or is unresponsive to caregiver

Anxious Attachment

Child has difficulty being soothed and may cling to caregiver

Disorganized Attachment

Confused behavior in response to caregiver, often due to trauma

Temperament

Characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Separation Anxiety

Fear of separation from primary caregiver

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of unfamiliar people, typical in infants

Harry Harlow Monkey Study

Monkeys preferred cloth mother over wire mother for comfort

Parallel Play

Children play near each other but don’t interact

Pretend Play

Using imagination to act out roles

Personal Fables

Belief that one’s experiences are unique

Imaginary Audience

Belief that others are always watching and judging

Emerging Adulthood

Period from late teens to mid-20s between adolescence and adulthood

Social Clock

Culturally preferred timing of life events

Secure Attachment Style in Adults

Comfortable with closeness and independence

Anxious Attachment Style in Adults

Crave closeness, fear rejection

Avoidant Attachment Style in Adults

Dismiss intimacy and avoid closeness

Disorganized Attachment Style in Adults

Unpredictable behavior and fear of relationships

Psychosocial Stages

Eight stages by Erik Erikson involving social conflict at different life phases

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic experiences that negatively impact development

Identity Diffusion

Lack of direction or commitment

Identity Foreclosure

Commitment without exploration

Identity Moratorium

Exploration without commitment

Identity Achievement

Commitment following exploration

Behavioral Perspective

Behavior is shaped by interactions with the environment

Associative Learning

Learning that links events together

Classical Conditioning

Learning through association of stimuli

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

Stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Stimulus that naturally triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Unlearned response to UCS

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after association

Conditioned Response (CR)

Learned response to CS

Acquisition

Initial stage of learning association

Stimulus Discrimination

Response only to specific stimuli

Stimulus Generalization

Response to similar stimuli

Extinction

Disappearance of learned response

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of extinguished response

Higher-Order Conditioning

CS is paired with new NS to produce response

Counterconditioning

Replacing unwanted response with new one

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning after one pairing

Biological Preparedness

Biological predisposition to form associations