Kinesiology - Exam 1 - Fall 2026

Anatomy

• study of the structure of organisms

Physiology

• study of the function of body structures and systems

Kinesiology

• study of movement across all its dimensions

  • includes anatomy, physiology, biomechanics, motor behavior (motor control, learning, development), and psychology

Anatomy vs. Functional Anatomy

• anatomy

  • structure of the body

  • focus on structure

    • ex→study of biceps brachii

• functional anatomy

  • body components necessary to achieve goal

  • focus on function

    • ex—>analysis of biceps curl

Linear Motion

• translation or translational motion

• movement on straight or curved pathway

• all points move the same distance at the same time

  • ex→walking in straight line

Angular Motion

• rotational motion

• motion around some point

• all points move through the same angle

  • ex→bicep curl

Newton’s Laws

1. an object that is motion stays in motion or an object at rest stays at rest unless it comes into contact with a force

2. force = mass x acceleration

3. for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction

Kinematics

• form of biomechanical analyses on movements

• examines space and time (spatial and timing characteristics) or movement WITHOUT regard to forces involved

  • ex→position or location, displacement (movement from point A to point B), velocity, acceleration

Kinetics

• form of biomechanical analyses on movements

• examines forces invovled

  • ex→ground rxn forces, joint torque (rotational force), pressure (force applied to a certain area)

Statics

• examines systems not moving or moving at a constant speed

• equilibrium→no movement or no acceleration

  • ex→holding the barbell at the lowest starting position

Dynamics

• examines systems that are moving/accelerating

  • ex→pushing up the barbell during the bench press

Qualitative

• non-numerical

• based on direct observation

• equipment not necessary

• focus on time and space

  • ex→adduction of humerus during freestyle swim→ankle position during walking (at heel strike or during swing phase)

Quantitative

• numerical

• based on data collected

• equipment necessary

  • ex→stress on shoulder during baseball pitch→compression force on femur during landing

Anatomical Position

• standard body reference

• body erect, head forward, arms hanging straight down, palms facing forward

Principal/Cardinal Planes

• sagittal→flexion, extension

• transverse (horizontal)→rotation to right/left

• frontal→adduction, abduction

Axis of Rotation

• imaginary line about which rotation occurs

• perpendicular to plane of action

  • longitudinal or vertical

  • mediolateral (ML)

  • anteroposterior (AP)

Medial-lateral

• reference to the midline of the body

Ipsilateral-contralateral

• same side or opposite side

Proximal-distal

• reference to the trunk

Flexion

• decreasing joint angle

Extension

• increasing joint angle

Hyperflexion

• flexion beyond normal range

Hyperextension

• extension beyond normal range

Abduction

• moving away from midline

Adduction

• moving toward midline

Hyperabduction

• abduction past 180 degree point

Hyperadduction

• adduction past 0 degree point

Rotation

• medial (internal) or lateral (external)

• right/left for the head and trunk

Lateral Flexion (Side-Bending)

• head or trunk only

  • ex→head tilts sideways

Circumduction (Multiplanar Movement)

• movement in conic fashion

Functions of Skeletal System

• structural support

  • provide framework, give shape to the body

• movement

  • bones function as mechanical levers

• protection

  • skull protects brain and eyes, ribs protect heart and lungs, pelvis protects urogenital organs

• mineral storehouse

  • bones house 98% of calcium in the body in the form of calcium phosphate crystals

• blood cell production

  • stem cells in red marrow form blood cells (hematopoiesis/hemopoiesis)

  • important sites of blood cell formation→the proximal ends of femur and humerus, sternum, ribs, vertebrae

  • preferred site for bone marrow harvesting→posterior iliac crest

Axial Skeleton

• 80 bones

• skull

• spinal column

• thoracic cage (ribs)

Appendicular Skeleton

• 126 bones

• pectoral (shoulder) girdles

• upper limbs

• pelvic girdle

• lower limbs

Types of Bones →Long

• femur

• humerus

• tibia

• fibula

• radius

Types of Bones →Short

• carpals

• tarsals

Types of Bones →Flat

• sternum

• manubrium of sternum

• skull

• scapulae

Types of Bones →Irregular

• vertebrae

• sacrum

• coccyx

• mandible

Types of Bones →Sesamoid

• bones embedded in tendons

  • patella

  • pisiform (in hand)

Mechanical Levers

• magnifies force and/or speed of movement (long bones of the body)

Morphology

• shape and structural arrangement of bones and characteristics of the articulations connecting the bones

Levers and Support

• bones increase in size from superior to inferior (proximal to distal)

Bone Composition

• 25% to 30% water

• 60% to 70% minerals (calcium phosphate) (→density) and collagen (→resistance to tension, bending, twisting)

Bone Cells→Osteoblast

• produce and increase bone mineral (bone-forming cells)

Bone Cells→Osteoclast

• break bones down (bone-resorbing cells), formed by the fusion of monocytes (type of immune cell that is made in the bone marrow→macrophages)

Bone Cells→Osteocyte

• maintain bone (a subset of osteoblasts that reside in the bone matrix)

Bone Tissue→Cortical

• higher mineral content, compact, very dense

• mass of bone is higher than trabecular

• forms the outer shell of long bones

Bone Tissue→Trabecular (Cancellous)

• porous, spongy

• found in the ends of long bones, vertebral bodies or other sites (iliac crest)

• account for 60% of the surface area of bone, 25% of the total skeletal mass

Bone Tissue Function

• bearing most of the mechanical force exerted on the skeleton

• serving as a reservoir for calcium (ex→mineral storehouse)→osteoclasts resorb none mineral and release calcium when necessary

Bone Remodeling→Bone

• dynamic tissue that adapts to

  • internal factors→hormone levels, calcium concentrations

  • external factors→mechanical loads

Bone Remodeling→Remodeling

• resorption and replacement of existing bone

• triggered by micro-damage to bone

  • osteoblast > osteoclast activity → net increase in bone mass

  • osteoclast > osteoblast activity → net decrease in bone mass

Wolff’s Law

• bone can structurally adapt to repeated imposed force placed upon it

• Julius Wolff, German anatomist

Wolff’s Law→Resorption

• response to decreased stress

• osteoclast dominate

  • disuse, immobilization, microgravity

Wolff’s Law→Deposition

• response to increased stress

• osteoblast dominate

  • weight bearing exercise

Stress

• force per unit area

Strain

• resulting deformation

Stress-Strain Curve for Human Bone

• bone initially exhibits an elastics response

  • deformation in response to loading

  • load removed→return to original shape/length

• continued loading past yield point→plastic response

  • micro-tears and debonding

  • load removed→permanently deformed

• continued loading→fracture

Types of Loading→Compression

• presses the ends of bones together

Types of Loading→Tension

• pulls or stretches the bone apart

Types of Loading→Shear

• parallel to the surface of object

Types of Loading→Torsional

• twisting force

Types of Loading→Bending

• applied to the area having no direct support

Types of Loading

• bone adapts to change in loading

• high rate of loading→injury risk

• muscles apply compression and tension

Bones and Physical Activity

• bones require mechanical stress to grow and strengthen

• loading→deposition→increased density

Which activities provide substantial mechanical stress to bones?

• weight lifting→depends on how heavy

• running→yes

• swimming→no

• football→depends on position

Stress Fractures

• results from repetitive mechanical stress

  • repetitive muscle forces pulling on the bone

  • muscle fatigue→reduced shock absorption

• bone remodeling response→the reabsorption and replacement of existing fatigue/injured bone

  • triggered by micro-damage

• resorption weakens the bone→becomes temporarily more porous and structurally weaker

  • increased osteoclast activity

• deposition occurs too slowily

• micro-damage accumulation if continue to load the bone

• 10% of injuries to athletes

Bone Health→Exercise

• weight bearing tasks (running, jumping)

• compressive forces

• specific to the body region being involved/affected

  • ex→increased lower limb bone density from running

  • ex→bone adaptation occurs in the throwing arm of a softball pitchers but not in the other arm

• too little exercise→loss of bone mass (ex→astronauts, sedentary lifestyle)

Bone Health→Diet

• calcium

• vitamin D (important for calcium absorption)

• vitamin C (synthesis of collagen)

• Moderate dietary protein (too little→reduced calcium absorption and increased urinary calcium levels) (too much→ may cause kidney hyperfiltration→ greater renal calcium loss)

• low to moderate sugar and fate intake (too much→reduced calcium absorption in the intestines

How to determine is someone has normal bone mineral density?

• X-ray

Osteopenia

• mild bone loss (lower bone density)

Osteoporosis

• severe bone loss

  • increased incidence in post-menopausal women

  • older adults→increased risk of falls and fractures

    • common sites→hip, wrist/forearm, vertebrae

  • 9 million osteoporosis related fractures worldwide

  • women 3x more likely to have hip fractures

Joint Structure and Classification

• stability→mobility continuum

  • joint stability→resistance to subluxation/dislocation

  • joint mobility→range of motion

• degree of stability/mobility determined by

  • amt of support provided by tissue surrounding the joint

    • ex→periarticular tissues, ligaments, joint capsule, fibrocartilage

• in general joints with high stability have low mobility

• in general joints with high mobility have low stability

Connective Tissue

• most abundant tissue type in the body

• an array of individual tissue with vast difference in structure, function and mechanical characteristics

  • ex→cartilage, Bone (cortical/compact or trabecular/cancellous), adipose, blood (fluid CT) (present in nose, ears, epiglottis, fibrous connective tissue (ligaments, tendons)

Tendon

• cordlike connective tissue that connects muscle to bone

• function

  • transmit forces generated by the muscle to the bone to produce and control movement

• 3 structural zones

  • Myotendinous (or musculotendinous) junction (ex→connective region between tendon and muscle)

  • the body of the tendon

  • osteoendinous junction (ex→connective region between tendon and bone

• tendon is stronger than ligament

Ligament

• connective tissue that joins bone to bone

• function

  • to resist tensile forces (for protecting bone-bone connections)

• some are isolated structure, others appear as indistinct thickening of the joint capsule

• multidirectional fiber orientation (ex→parallel, oblique, spiral)

• mechanical loading→ligament become stronger and stiffer

Cartilage

• firm, flexible tissue

• no blood supply or nerves

• nourished by synovial fluid within joint

Articular Cartilage

• hyaline cartilage

• covers joint ends at articulations

• 60% to 80% water, collagen (protein), proteoglycan (forms a highly hydrated gel-like substance

• function

  • increased joint stability

  • distribute load in the joint→reduces contact

Fibrocartilage

• meniscus (articular disk for knee), labrum (hip, shoulder)

• nourishing by surrounding synovial fluid and the blood vessels present in the outer region of meniscus (vascular only for outer 10%)

• function

  • reduce friction at stress points in the body

• in knee, shoulder, hip and spine (intervertebral discs)

Functional Classification of Joints

• type of extend of movement they allow

Functional Classification of Joints→Synarthroses

• joints that allow no movement

  • ex→sutures of the skull, manubriosternal joint (cartilaginous joint that unites the manubirum and body of the sternum)

Functional Classification of Joints→Amphiarthroses

• joints that have limited movement

  • ex→intervertebral discs

Functional Classification of Joints→Diarthroses

• joints that have free movement

Structural Classification of Joints

• types of tissue that binds the joint together (ex→binding tissue)

Structural Classification of Joints→Fibrous Joints

• do not have a joint cavity/space

• bound by collagen fibers (collagenous tissue)

• varied movement extent but usually little or no movement

• 2 common types of fibrous joints

  • sutures (suture joints of skull)

  • syndesmoses→joints bound by strong membrane or ligaments (ex→ulna-radius, tibia-fibula)

Structural Classification of Joints→Cartilagnious Joints

• do not have a joint cavity/space

• bound by cartilage

• synchodroses→joints bound by hyaline cartilage (soft cartilage, containing fewer fibers)

  • first sternocostal joint (where the first rib is anchored to the manubrium by its costal cartilage) (remaining sternocostal joints are synovial joints)

• symphysis→joints bound by fibrocartilage (stiff cartilage, containing collagen fibers)

Structural Classification of Joints→Synovial Joints

• most common type (ex→hip, knee, ankle, shoulder, elbow, wrist)

• synovial joint cavity/space

• articular capsule (joint capsule)

  • fibrous capsule

  • synovial membrane

• synovial fluid

• articular cartilage (hyaline)

• low friction

Types of Joint Movement→Gliding

• sliding/gliding of 2 surfaces on 1 another

  • ex→intertarsals, intercarpals, vertebral segment movements

• no axis of rotation→planar movement

Types of Joint Movement→Angular

• when a body segment moves through an angle about an imaginary line called the axis of rotation

  • ex→flexion/extension, abduction/adduction

Types of Joint Movement→Rotational

• ex→internal/external rotation

Synovial Joint Types→Gliding (Planar)

• have opposing flat or slightly curved surfaces that permit limited sliding between bones

• no axis of rotation

  • ex→articular processes of adjacent vertebrae, intertarsal joints, intercarpal joints

Synovial Joint Types→Hinge

• exhibit angular motion about a single fixed axis of rotation (door hinge)

• movements are uniplanar and uniaxial by the joints bony configuration

• relatively stable, due to tight bony fit

  • ex→ankle, elbow, interphalangeal

Synovial Joint Types→Pivot

• uniaxial

• distinguihed by an axis that runs longitudinally along a bone

  • ex→between atlas (C1) and axis (C2) in C-spine (i.e. atlantoaxial joint), proximal radioulnar joint

Synovial Joint Types→Ellipsoidal

• Relatively unstable joints formed by articulation of a shallow convex surface of one bone with concave surface or another

  • metacarpophalangeal

Synovial Joint Types→Saddle

• one bone sits on another as a saddle sits on horse

• generally biplanar and biaxial

• relatively stable bc of interlocking of 2 bones

  • ex→carpometacarpal joint of the thumb (twiddle your thumbs)

Synovial Joint Types→Ball and Socket

• rounded end of 1 bone is housed in a depression (socket) of another bone

• usually triplanar and triaxial

  • ex→hip and shoulder

Synovial Joint Types→Condyloid

• rounded condyles (convex surfaces) of 1 bone are housed in shallow concave surfaces of another bone

  • ex→knee (femoral condyles)

Degrees of Freedom

• number of planes in which a joint has the ability to move

1 Degree of Freedom

• Uniaxial

  • ex→elbow

2 Degrees of Freedom

• Biaxial

  • ex→wrist

3 Degrees of Freedom

• triaxial

  • ex→shoulder

Closed-Packed Position

• maximum stability position of joint

• maximum contact between articular surfaces

• joint ligaments are tight (taut)

• maximum compression possible

  • ex→full extension at the knee, maximum dorsiflexion of the foot