Ch.7- learning

definition of learning

Learning is defined as a lasting change caused by experience. It has to be inferred from behaviour, it cannot directly be observed

Animal experimentation is..

is a big focus of studies on learning

Learning can be divided into two major categories:

Associative learning and non-associative learning

associative learning:

learning that involves forming associations between stimuli

non-associative learning:

 learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli

which is the simpler form of learning?

Non associative learning,  it refers to the repeated exposure to a stimulus or an event, meaning it does not require learning about an association between multiple stimuli.

Two major types non-associative learning:

Habituation and sensitization

Habituation 

a form of non-associative learning whereby repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response.

Dishabituation

a form of non-associative learning whereby there is a recovery of attention to a novel stimulus following habituation.

There have been some habituation abnormalities recorded in a number of different neuropsychiatric disorders, including:

autism spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and migraine.

Sensitization 

a form of non-associative learning whereby a strong stimulus results in an exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of weaker stimuli.

Adaptive behaviour for survival

sensitization

Why does associative learning occur?

Occurs when we link two events that occur close together in time/ making connections between two or more stimuli

Majority of learning is considered to be..

Associative

Two major types of associative learning are:

Classical conditioning and operant/instrumental conditioning

Conditioning

the association of events in the environment

classical conditioning

a form of associative learning between two previously unrelated stimuli that results in a learned response

Ivan Pavlov 

was interested in digestion rather than psychology 

Ivan Pavlov’s discovery

• Dogs associate sounds of researchers with them coming in with food, causing the dogs to salivate.

•  Dogs’ responses indicated that they were experiencing not only a physiological response, but also a psychological response—a type of learning that originated in the cerebral cortex

• His discovery of conditioned reflexes made it possible to study psychic activity objectively

Steps to classical conditioning:

1. stimulus has to be present that can automatically trigger a response that does not have to be learned. The stimulus that causes this reflexive response is called the unconditioned stimulus (US). (Dog food)

2. neutral stimulus is presented together with the unconditioned stimulus.

3.  After repeated pairings of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus (US), the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the unconditioned response.  (dogs salivating)

4. After that happens, the neutral stimulus is no longer considered neutral. It is now called the conditioned stimulus (CS) (door) and the physiological response it elicits is called the conditioned response (CR). (dogs salivating after they have been conditioned to).

 

Process 

1. Acquisition (CS-US pairings) = initial stage in learning

2. Extinction (CS alone) = the gradual weakening and disappearance of a CR

3. Spontaneous recovery (CS alone)= reappearance of an extinguished

4. Second spontaneous recovery (CS)= reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the CS

Stimulus generalization

 what occurs when stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus trigger the same conditioned response

Stimulus discrimination

what occurs when an organism learns to emit a specific behaviour in the presence of a conditioned stimulus, but not in the presence of stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus

 

Exctinction

 reduction of a conditioned response after repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus alone

Spontaneous recovery

 re-emergence of a conditioned response sometime after extinction has occurred.

Phobia 

a persistent, irrational, or obsessive fear of a object or situation that may arise as a result of fear conditioning.

Operant conditioning

operant or instrumental conditioning a form of associative learning whereby behaviour is modified depending on its consequences.

Law of effect

a law that states that behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.

Behaviourism 

the systematic study and manipulation of observable behaviour

B.F Skinner

Behaviourist and founder of operant conditioning

reinforcer 

 an experience that produces an increase in a certain behaviour.

two types of reinforcers

 positive and negative reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

presentation of a pleasant consequence following a behaviour to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur. (adding something)

 

negative reinforcement

 removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a response to increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur. (taking something away)

 

continuous reinforcement

 behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs

Intermittent (partial) reinforcement

 behaviour is only followed by reinforcement some of the time, Ratio or interval schedules

negative punishment 

removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of a behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated. (taking something)

 

Punishment

 an experience that produces a decrease in a particular behaviour.

Positive punishment

presentation of an unpleasant consequence following a specific behaviour to decrease the probability of the behaviour being repeated. (adding something)

primary reinforcer 

a stimulus that has survival value and is therefore intrinsically rewarding. (food, drink, sex, etc..)

secondary reinforcer

a neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with a primary reinforcer. (money, good grades, praise, etc..)

primary punisher 

a stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism.

Secondary punisher

 a stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with a primary punisher.

 

operant or instrumental conditioning

a form of associative learning whereby behaviour is modified depending on its consequences.

law of effect

a law that states that behaviours leading to rewards are more likely to occur again, while behaviours producing unpleasantness are less likely to occur again.