Addiction mod 2

Sensory neurons

carry information into the brain and spinal cord

motor neurons

transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord out to our muscles, nerves, and glands in order to produce a response.

When does neurogenesis burst?

during a person’s first three years of life, during puberty, and then in young adulthood

Neuroglia

90 percent of brain tissue, provide neurons with nutrients and oxygen, clean up debris, protect and insulate neurons, and aid in the transmission of information.

collaterals

Branches of an axon

Nodes of Ranvier

A gap in the myelin sheath of an axon, where action potentials are propagated.

Vesicles

Allow for the release of a predetermined amount of neurotransmitter, and they also protect the neurotransmitter from degradation by enzymes within the nerve terminal

Receptors

A protein molecule located on or in a cell, which responds specifically to a particular neurotransmitter, hormone, or drug.

Neurotransmission first half

Neurotransmitter is synthesized and stored in vesicles.

Action potential reaches the presynaptic axon terminal, opening voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels.

Influx of Ca²⁺ causes vesicles to travel to presynaptic membrane.

Vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synapse.

Neurotransmission second half

Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on postsynaptic membrane.

Ion channels in the postsynaptic neuron open or close, leading to a change in voltage in the postsynaptic cell.

The signal is terminated, usually by reuptake (a) or by enzymatic degradation (b).

card Neurotransmitter binds to receptor on postsynaptic membrane. is moved

ionotropic receptors

A type of receptor that is also an ion channel; when a substance binds, the receptor quickly opens, and an ion such as sodium or chloride rushes into the cell.

metabotropic receptors

A type of receptor that is separate from an ion channel; if a substance binds to the receptor, a series of events may open a separate ion channel or cause another change in the cell, but it happens relatively slowly.

Presynaptic autoreceptors

help to self-regulate the amount of neurotransmitter released from the axon. When a neurotransmitter is released, it can bind to these autoreceptors, which detect their presence in the synapse and send a signal to halt synthesis and/or release of the neurotransmitter.

three main mechanisms by which neurotransmission stops

reuptake, enzymatic degradation, and diffusion

enzymatic degradation

enzymes associated with the postsynaptic membrane or in the synapse break down some neurotransmitters

diffusion,

a process by which molecules move from areas of greater concentration to areas of lesser concentration, the neurotransmitter drifts to areas lacking receptors, where it is broken down and is removed by the general circulation of fluids in the brain.

depolarization

When the charge across the neuron is reversed, the inside of a neuron becomes more positively charged compared with the outside.

Action potential

A change in voltage between the inside and the outside of a neuron.

Which sequence describing the route of a neurotransmitter during neuronal transmission is in the correct order?

Packaged into vesicles → travels down the axon → reaches axon terminal → fuses with presynaptic membrane → released into synapse; binds to receptors at the postsynaptic neuron

excitatory effects that drugs can have on neurotransmitters

blocking the reuptake of neurotransmitters

increasing synthesis of neurotransmitters

binding to receptor sites

Nicotine, THC, and morphine are all examples of drugs that have an excitatory effect by

binding to their corresponding receptor sites

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Composed of nerves that go to and from the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Sensory division (PNS)

A division of the PNS, consisting of nerves that carry information into the CNS.

Motor division (PNS)

A division of the PNS, consisting of nerves that carry information out from the CNS.

Somatic nervous system (Sensory division)

A part of the Sensory division responsible for sensations from touch, pain, vision, hearing, balance, and smell.

Autonomic nervous system (Sensory division)

A part of the Sensory division responsible for sensations from the viscera including hunger, nausea, taste, and internal pain.

Somatic nervous system

A part of the Motor division responsible for voluntary control of skeletal muscle movement.

Autonomic nervous system (Motor division)

A part of the Motor division responsible for involuntary control of smooth muscle, heart muscles, and glands.

Sympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that controls the 'fight or flight' response.

Parasympathetic nervous system

A division of the autonomic nervous system that controls 'business as usual' functions, promoting rest and digestion.

What are the primary functions of the cerebral cortex, and what are its major lobes?

The cerebral cortex is involved in sensory information processing, reasoning, and thought. Its major lobes include the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, and insular lobes.

Which drugs primarily affect the cerebral cortex?

Marijuana, LSD, and alcohol

What primary functions are controlled by the basal ganglia?

Responsible for the fine-tuning of movements and emotions.

What type of drugs specifically target the basal ganglia?

Anti-Parkinson's

What is the primary role of the hippocampus?

Primarily responsible for memory formation.

Name two types of drugs that can affect the hippocampus.

Marijuana and antidepressant can affect

Describe the main function of the thalamus?

Relay station for incoming sensory information.

Which drug is specifically mentioned as affecting the thalamus?

LSD is a drug specifically mentioned for its effects on

List the key functions of the hypothalamus

Controls hormonal regulation, the autonomic nervous system, sex drive, hunger, body temperature, pleasure, and fear.

Provide examples of drugs that affect the hypothalamus.

Antidepressant drugs, weight loss drugs, hormonal contraceptives, ecstasy, cocaine, and marijuana

What is the main function of the pituitary gland?

Produces and secretes hormones.

Which type of drugs directly relate to the function of the pituitary gland?

Hormonal contraceptives

What is the primary role of the pineal gland?

Functions as the body's biological clock.

What common supplement or drug helps regulate the pineal gland's function?

Melatonin is a common supplement that helps regulate

What are the main functions of the tectum and tegmentum within the midbrain?

Involved in visual and auditory reflexes, as well as reward and motivation.

What roles does the cerebellum play?

Balance, posture, and coordination.

Which common substances are known to affect the cerebellum

Alcohol and marijuana

Besides smoothing the breathing pattern, what other crucial function is associated with the pons?

Strongly associated with regulating sleep

Which class of drugs can significantly affect the pons's functions?

Opioids

What is controlled by the medulla oblongata?

Controls basic vegetative processes such as breathing, heartbeat, swallowing, and coughing.

Name two types of drugs that can depress the functions controlled by the medulla oblongata.

Opioids and alcohol

What is the primary function of the spinal cord?

Conduit for sensory and motor pathways to and from the body, transmitting signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

The right hemisphere is for

Synthesis—putting isolated elements together as a whole. Spatial perceptions, map reading, geometry, art, and music appreciation, as are emotions, intuitions, understanding emotional tone in speech, and recognition of faces

The parietal lobe contains the

primary somatosensory area of the cortex, where sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch are processed.

The temporal lobe processes

hearing, memory, and the integration of sensory functions.

the insula is involved with

mind–body integration by receiving and responding to internal sensations and translates these into a conscious, subjective experience

The basal ganglia are

A group of connected nuclei that influence muscle movement, emotions, and mood.

Proprioception

sense helps us track where our body position is relative to other objects and how we are moving through space

Area postrema

vomiting center, because the ability of this area to detect toxic substances in the blood serves as an important safety mechanism.

GABA

small neurotransmitter that acts as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain. As many as 40 percent of the synapses in the CNS

Glutamate

Is involved in sensory signals, brain excitability, brain plasticity, and higher cognitive functions such as learning and memory.

types of glutamate receptors

Three of the best known are AMPA, kainate, and NMDA

Which neurotransmitter is likely to work more slowly and less directly on receptors within the brain, instead working to regulate the efficacy of other systems?

Oxytocin

If you were looking for a major neurotransmitter to target that was involved in sleep but not very involved in mood function, which of the following is the best fit?

Acetylcholine