Rthorical Terms (Ap Lang summer homework)

Argument: antithesis

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite

Argument: aphorism

A tense statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point

Argument: appeals to ethos

Writers establish their credibility to get us to believe/trust their argument; this type of appeal demonstrates reliability on the part of the speaker and respect for the audience’s ideas

Argument: appeal to logos

Writers use logos to engage the intellect in reason; these types of appeals evoke a cognitive response

Argument: Appeal to pathos

Writes appeals to the emotions to touch a nerve and compel people to action

Argument: Aristotelian Triangle (Rhetorical Triangle)

The relationship between speaker, text, and readers; and the use of the appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos in an argument

Argument: Atmosphere

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the authors choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere.

Argument: Caricature

A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic relief, a persons distinctive physical features or other characteristics

Argument: Deductive reasoning

Reaching a probable conclusion based on given premises (established credibility; ethos) and announces the subject and purpose of the discourse

Argument: Exordium

The introductory part of an argument in which the speaker or writer establishes credibility (ethos) and announces the subject and purpose of the discourse

Argument: generalization

Refers to large classes, concepts, groups, and emotions

Argument: Inductive reasoning

Forming a generalization from a set of specific examples (moves from specifics to a generalization)

Argument: interference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information present. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from the passage, the most direct, most reasonable interference is the safest answer choice. If an interference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer.

Argument: Style First Purpose

An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, fig lang, and other lit devices. Some authors styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. Some styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc.

Argument: Style Second Purpose

Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance of the Victorian period, or a literacy movement, such as romantic, transcendence, or realist movement

Argument: syllogism

A syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogist logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first is “major” and second is “minor”) that inevitably leads to a sound conclusion

Ex: major premise; all men are mortal, minor premise; Socrates is a man. Conclusion; therefore, Socrates is a mortal

Argument: verisimilitude

Having the appearance of truthfulness

Argument: wit

In modern usage, intellectually amusing lang that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speakers verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse lang that makes a pointed statement

Syntax: anadiplosis

takes the last word of a sentence or phrase and repeats it near the beginning of the next sentence or phrase.  An example:  In education we find the measure of our own ignorance; in ignorance we find the beginning of wisdom.

Syntax: antecedent

 The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

Ex: “But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted.” 

The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is...? [answer: “all truth”] 

Syntax: appositive

word or phrase that renames the noun right beside it

Syntax: clause

 A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing. 

Syntax: epistrophe

ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words.  An example:  What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us.

Syntax: loose sentence / non-periodic sentence

 A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. 

Syntax: periodic sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

Syntax: subject complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective).

Syntax: Predicate nominative

1. a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. 

Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. 

movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts 

Syntax: Predicate adjective

an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. 

It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. 

Example: Warren remained optimistic. 

optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

Syntax: subordinate clause

 Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that. 

Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers. 

underlined phrase = subordinate clause 

Syntax: syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.  In the multiple choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax.  In the essay section, you may need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

Diction: Alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

Diction: ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. 

Diction: diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style. 

Diction: didactic

 From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

Diction: double entendre

ambiguity of meaning arising from language that lends itself to more than one interpretation

Diction: euphemism

From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.

Diction: invective

an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff “this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.”) 

Diction: Onomatopoeia

 A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

Diction: pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words). 

Diction: recursive

repeating over and over

Diction: Semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

FOS: Analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. 

FOS: apostrophe

 A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats addresses the urn itself:  “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed. 

FOS: conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

FOS: enthymeme

a figure of speech which bases a conclusion on the truth of its contrary.  An example:  If to be foolish is evil, then it is virtuous to be wise.

FOS: extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.  

FOS: irony/ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor.

FOS: verbal irony

when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning 

FOS: situational irony

 when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen

FOS: dramatic irony

when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

FOS: litotes

a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye). 

FOS: metonymy

A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For example, a news release that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to petticoat.” The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact. 

FOS: oxymoron

From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.” This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron. 

FOS: synecdoche

 a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part.  Examples:  To refer to a boat as a “sail,” or a car as “wheels,” or the violins, violas as “strings.”  **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e. referring to a monarch as “the crown” or the President as “The White House.”

FOS: synesthesia

 when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another.  Ex.  The sight of red ants makes you itchy.  In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image.  Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title, “Taste the Pain,” is an example.

FOS: understatement

the ironic minimizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is.  The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic.  Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole.  Example:  Jonathan Swift’s A Tale of a Tub:  “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”

Modes: allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. 

Modes: generic conventions

This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention. 

Modes: homily

This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice. 

Modes: rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing.

Modes: The purpose of exposition

To explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. 

Modes: The purpose of argumentation

To prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. 

Modes: The purpose of description

to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. 

Modes: The purpose of narration

 to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.

Miscellaneous: allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. 

Miscellaneous: third person omniscient

 in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters 

Miscellaneous: third person limited omniscient

in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. 

MLA: et al.

and others (used when there are many authors and you don’t want to list them all)

MLA: e.g.

latin for exempli gratia;  for example

MLA: I.e.

 latin for id est; that is (to say), in other words