Comprehensive Lecture Review: ELA, Math, Science, History, Geography, & Civics

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering key terms and definitions across English Language Arts, Math, Science, Physics, U.S. History, Geography, and Civics/Government as presented in the lecture notes.

Thesis Statement

A specific, arguable sentence at the end of an introduction that states an essay’s central argument.

Independent Clause

A complete sentence with a subject and predicate that expresses a full thought.

Dependent Clause

A group of words with a subject and verb that cannot stand alone; begins with a subordinating conjunction.

Compound Sentence

Two independent clauses joined by a comma and a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS).

Complex Sentence

One independent clause combined with at least one dependent clause.

Tone

The author’s attitude toward the subject or audience (e.g., sarcastic, serious).

Mood

The feeling created in the reader by setting, tone, and word choice (e.g., eerie, joyful).

Verbal Irony

When what is said is the opposite of what is meant.

Situational Irony

An outcome that is opposite of what is expected (e.g., a fire station burns down).

Dramatic Irony

When the audience knows information a character does not.

Symbolism

Use of a real object to represent something larger or abstract (e.g., a dove for peace).

MLA Format

English/Humanities writing style featuring double-spacing, 12-pt Times New Roman, 1-inch margins.

Slope

Measures a line’s steepness; change in y over change in x.

Point-Slope Form

Linear equation form: y − y₁ = m(x − x₁).

Slope-Intercept Form

Linear equation form: y = mx + b, where m is slope and b is y-intercept.

Quadratic Formula

x = (−b ± √b²−4ac) / 2a; solves any quadratic equation.

Pythagorean Theorem

For right triangles: a² + b² = c².

Vertical Angles

Opposite angles formed by two intersecting lines; always equal.

Complementary Angles

Two angles whose measures add to 90°.

Supplementary Angles

Two angles whose measures add to 180°.

Function

A rule assigning exactly one output (y) to each input (x).

Parallel Lines

Lines that never intersect and have identical slopes.

Perpendicular Lines

Lines that intersect at 90°; slopes are opposite reciprocals.

Mean

Average; sum of values divided by the number of values.

Median

Middle value when data are ordered.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value(s) in a data set.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest values.

Area of a Circle

A = πr².

Circumference of a Circle

C = 2πr.

Probability

The likelihood that an event will occur.

DNA

Double-helix molecule in nuclei carrying genetic information (A-T, C-G).

Mitosis

Cell division producing two genetically identical daughter cells for growth/repair.

Meiosis

Cell division producing four genetically unique gametes with half the chromosomes.

Cell Membrane

Semi-permeable boundary regulating entry and exit of substances in a cell.

Photosynthesis

Process where plants convert sunlight, water, and CO₂ into glucose and O₂ in chloroplasts.

Cellular Respiration

Process where cells break down glucose with O₂ to produce ATP in mitochondria.

Atom

Basic unit of matter composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Element

Substance that cannot be chemically broken down; defined by atomic number.

Chemical Bond

Attraction between atoms; includes covalent (shared electrons) and ionic (transferred electrons).

Chemical Reaction

Process where reactants form products as bonds are broken and formed.

pH Scale

Scale from 0–14 measuring acidity (

Newton's First Law

Law of inertia: an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a force.

Newton's Second Law

F = m × a; force equals mass times acceleration.

Newton's Third Law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Speed

Rate of motion; Speed = Distance ÷ Time.

Work

Energy transferred when a force moves an object; Work = Force × Distance.

Declaration of Independence

1776 document declaring U.S. freedom from Britain.

U.S. Constitution

1787 framework establishing the three branches of U.S. government.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments protecting individual freedoms.

Civil War

1861-1865 conflict between North and South primarily over slavery.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery in the United States.

19th Amendment

Granted women the right to vote in 1920.

Great Depression

Severe 1929 economic downturn marked by high unemployment and poverty.

World War II

Global war 1939-1945; U.S. entered after 1941 Pearl Harbor attack.

Cold War

1947-1991 political tension between U.S. and USSR without direct warfare.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Law that outlawed racial segregation and discrimination.

7 Continents

Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, Australia.

5 Oceans

Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, Arctic.

Equator

0° latitude line dividing Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Prime Meridian

0° longitude line dividing Eastern and Western Hemispheres.

Latitude

Horizontal lines measuring distance north or south of the equator.

Longitude

Vertical lines measuring distance east or west of the Prime Meridian.

Mt. Everest

World’s highest mountain (29,032 ft) located in Asia.

Nile River

World’s longest river (~4,100 miles) located in Africa.

Time Zones

Earth’s 24 divisions, each spanning 15° of longitude.

Natural Resources

Materials like coal, oil, water, and trees used by humans.

Legislative Branch

Makes laws; U.S. Congress (Senate and House of Representatives).

Executive Branch

Enforces laws; headed by the President, includes Vice President and Cabinet.

Judicial Branch

Interprets laws; U.S. Supreme Court and lower federal courts.

Checks and Balances

System where each branch limits the powers of the others.

Democracy

Government in which power rests with the people through voting.

1st Amendment

Protects freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

Voting

Right of U.S. citizens 18 and older to choose leaders and laws.

Political Parties

Groups like Democrats and Republicans that organize to win elections and shape policy.