Scientific skills

Case study

An investigation of a particular activity, behaviour, event or problem containing a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world. Case studies can take various forms: historical, involving the analysis of causes and consequences, and discussion of knowledge learned from the situation; a real situation or a role-play of an imagined situation, where plausible recommendations are to be made; or problem-solving, where developing a new design, methodology or method is required.

Classification

The arrangement of phenomena, objects or events into manageable sets.

Controlled experiment

Tests the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable while controlling all other factors.

• Scientific advantage: Establishes causal relationships with high reliability, reducing confounding factors and enabling precise hypothesis testing.

Correlational study

Observes variables without manipulation or controls to identify associations and make predictions.

• Scientific advantage: Detects patterns and potential relationships in natural systems where experimental control is impractical or unethical, guiding further research.

Fieldwork

• Investigates phenomena in natural environments using observations, sampling, or surveys.

  • Scientific advantage: Provides ecologically valid data, capturing real-world variability and interactions, increasing external validity of findings.

Literature review

• Collates and analyses secondary data to provide background or answer research questions.

  • Scientific advantage: Integrates existing knowledge, identifies gaps, and guides experimental design, ensuring research builds on validated evidence.

Modelling

Constructs physical, conceptual, or mathematical representations to understand or predict systems.

• Scientific advantage: Simplifies complex systems to test hypotheses, simulate scenarios, and make quantitative predictions that may not be experimentally feasible.

Product, process or system development

Designs artefacts or processes to meet human needs using science and technology.

• Scientific advantage: Applies theoretical knowledge to practical solutions, demonstrating the translational value of scientific inquiry.

Simulation

Uses a model to study real or theoretical systems when variables cannot be controlled.

• Scientific advantage: Allows experimentation under controlled, safe, or extreme conditions that are impossible in reality, facilitating hypothesis testing and risk assessment.

Accuracy

Relates to how close a measurement is to the ‘true’ value of the quantity being measured.

Precision

Refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with each other, independent of the true value.

Repeatability

The closeness of agreement between results of successive measurements of the same quantity under the same conditions. These conditions include the same measurement procedure, the same observer, the same measuring instrument used under the same conditions, the same location, and repetition over a short period of time.

Reproducibility

The closeness of agreement between measurements of the same quantity under changed conditions. These different conditions include a different method of measurement, different observer, different measuring instrument, different location, different conditions of use, and different time.

True value

the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly.

Validity

a measurement is said to be valid if it measures what it is supposed to be measuring. An experiment is said to be valid if it investigates what it sets out and/or claims to investigate. 

Consequences-based approach

An ethical approach focusing on maximizing positive outcomes and minimizing negative effects.

Duty- and/or rule-based approach

An ethical approach focused on how people act, emphasizing duties and ethical rules.

Virtues-based approach

An ethical approach emphasizing the moral character of a person rather than the action itself.

Integrity

the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding and the honest reporting of all sources of information and communication of results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

Justice

Moral obligation to ensure fair consideration and distribution of benefits.

Beneficence

Commitment to maximizing benefits and minimizing risks and harms.

Non-maleficence

Avoiding the causation of harm while ensuring benefits outweigh potential harms.

Respect

Considering the intrinsic and instrumental value of living things and their welfare.

Personal errors

Mistakes or miscalculations in measurement.

Random errors

Unpredictable variations in measurement processes that affect precision.

Systematic errors

Errors affecting accuracy by causing measurements to differ from the true value consistently.

Uncertainty

The reflection of the lack of exact knowledge of the value of the quantity measured.

Outliers

Readings that lie a long way from other results, often requiring further examination.