The Korean War, 1950-53

Introduction

The Korean War was the time when the Cold War became a global conflict.

In 1945, Korea was freed from the Japanese. US troops stayed in Korea until 1946. The country was split in half at the 38th parallel:

North Korea (led by Kim Il Sung) was Communist.

South Korea (led by Syngman Rhee) was capitalist.

The two countries hated each other.

The Red Scare: McCarthyism and the anti- Communist crusade in America

Anti-Communist feeling was strong in the USA after WW2 , but it reached fever pitch in the 1950s, encouraged by Senator Joseph R McCarthy who alleged that the Soviet Union had a conspiracy to place Communist sympathisers into key position in American life. McCarthy’s accusations led to purges and show trials of those accused of ‘un-American’ behaviour. They affected every level of US society - no group, institution, or individual was safe from suspicion.

During the 1950s the ‘anti-Red’ crusade reached its peak. It helped to shape and intensify public opinion against Communism in America. McCarthy and his followers created an atmosphere of near-hysterical suspicion and fear of the ‘enemy within’.

Under continued pressure, Truman now called for a far-reaching review of US foreign and defence policy in response to the new threats perceived as resulting from the Chinese Communist victory and the USSR’s A-bomb. It seemed now that the USA might be engaged in a Cold War on 2 fronts and against a Soviet Union that was now a nuclear power.

NSC-68: ‘Total Commitment’

NSC-68 was a report of the US National Security Council produced in 1950.

NSC-68 warned of how all Communist activity everywhere could be traced back to Moscow. It went on to say that recent development had a ‘global theme’ and that hey indicated the growing strength and influence of the USSR. This was the ‘monolithic’ view of Communism.

The report suggested an immediate increase in military strength and spending to $35-$50 billion.

The key significance of NSC-68 was that it encouraged military and economic aid to be given to any country perceived by the USA to be resisting Communism.

North Korea invades South Korea, 1950

On 25 June 1950, 90 000 North Korean soldiers launched an invasion of South Korea. The North Korean attack was seen as a clear example of Soviet expansionism. The North Koreans were assumed to be acting on the orders of Stalin. There was fear that failure to take action would undermine the credibility of the USA in its determination to resist Communism and would encourage a ‘domino effect’ in the neighbouring states.

After initially sending aid to South Korea, the USA sponsored a resolution in the UN calling for military action against North Korea. Truman saw this as an important test of the UN. If the UN ignored the North Korean invasion it would be making the same mistakes as the LON. As the USSR was boycotting the Security Council, in protest at the refusal of the USA to allow Communist China a seat on the Council, this resolution was passed on 27 June 1950. On 1 July, US troops arrived in Korea.

Background of the conflict

Japan had officially annexed Korea in 1910 and was still in occupation of Korea when WW2 ended. Korean nationalists were not allowed to decide the fate of Korea in 1945 and it was agreed by the USA and the USSR that the 2 superpowers would take joint responsibility for repatriating the Japanese forces there. The 38th parallel line of latitude was taken as the dividing point, with the USSR in the north and the US in the south.

This was originally intended to be a temporary arrangement and, at the Council of Foreign Ministers’ Moscow conference, the US and the USSR agreed on the creation of a Korean provisional government, followed by a short period of international trusteeship or supervision, leading eventually to independence.

This was difficult to achieve as:

• As the Cold War developed, the USA and the USSR became less willing to co-operate

• Despite the Moscow Agreement, separate administrations emerged on either sides of the 38th parallel.

The Americans persuaded the UN to establish a commission to supervise Korean elections. This commission was refused entry in the North, but observed a different election in the South. Although most Koreans opposed partition, the Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the South under Syngman Rhee. It was undemocratic and strongly anti-communist. The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) was founded in the North under Kim Il Sung.

Although the USA supported Syngman Rhee with economic and military aid, they did not intend to station troops in the ROK, and the US military had left South Korea by mid-1949. Soviet troops left North Korea in 1948.

 President Truman’s interest in the Far East:

• Domino theory:

Europe was not the only place where Communists were coming to power. In the Far East, too, they were getting powerful – China turned Communist in 1949. Truman believed that, if one country fell to Communism, then others would follow, like a line of dominoes. He was worried that, if Korea fell, the Communists would capture Japan.

• Undermine Communism:

Until the Korean War, the Truman Doctrine had looked to 'contain' communism - to stop it spreading. In April 1950, the American National Security Council issued a report recommending that America abandon 'containment' and start 'rolling back' Communism.

• Cold War:

Truman believed that the USA was in a competition for world domination with the USSR. By supporting South Korea, America was able to fight Communism without directly attacking Russia.

Stalin’s interest in the Far East

• Stalin may have been more hopeful about the chances of world revolution. The fact that the Communists had won the Chinese Civil War, that the Soviets had the a-bomb and that the West was facing economic difficulties, might have convinced Stalin that it was the time to push forward with spreading Soviet influence in Asia.

• The US’ role in Japan could have provoked a role to gain influence in Korea. Stalin knew that the US was turning Japan into a strong anti-Communist base; if he could gain control of Korea, this would secure the Soviet position in NE Asia.

• Stalin’s opportunism is another possible factor. His tendency to advance himself in situations where he thought he could do so without provoking too strong a response.

Although, he had changed his mind about supporting the attack, Stalin remained cautious. He warned ‘the Korean friends’ not to ‘expect great assistance and support from the Soviet Union’, because it had ‘more important challenges to meet’. He also made it clear that Kim Il Sung had to gain the approval of Mao.

Stalin’s involvement in the Far East:

• Kim Il Sung visited Stalin

In March 1949, he persuaded Stalin that he could conquer South Korea. Stalin did not think that America would dare to get involved, so he gave his agreement. Stalin saw a chance to continue the cold war and discomfort America, but ‘at arm’s length’ – without directly confronting the Americans. Kim Il Sung also went to see Mao Zedong to get his agreement.

• Syngman Rhee

In 1950, Syngman Rhee boasted that he was going to attack North Korea. It was a good enough excuse – the North Koreans invaded South Korea.

What was the role of Mao Zedong in the outbreak of the war?

Mao was initially sceptical about the success of the invasion, but gave his approval because Kim fostered the impression that Stalin was more enthusiastic than Mao, and also because Mao at this time was planning an invasion of Taiwan. He needed Soviet support for this and worried that if he expressed reservations about the invasion, Stalin might also show concerns about Taiwan. Having given his approval, he asked Kim if he needed troops stationed on the Korean border in case the Americans intervened, but Kim said that it would not be necessary. Mao then seemed to have paid little attention to the actual preparations that were going on in NK.

What was the role of Kim Il Sung in starting the war?

Kim Il Sung put a huge amount of effort into persuading Stalin that he should back an attack on the South. Stalin initially had no interest in these plans and Kim Il Sung obtained Stalin’s approval only after persistent appeals. Thus it is clear that the will for war came from Pyongyang and not Moscow.

Korea and the escalation of tension

The creation of NATO significantly increased international tension between the superowers in the 1950s:

1. Proxy War

2. US–China Hostility and Sino-Soviet Relations

3. Military Blocs

4. Arms Race

5. Cold War intensified

6. Korea Divided

Proxy War

• Although fought under the banner of the United Nations, the Korean War was essentially a US war against communism, anticipating later interventions in Vietnam and Cuba.

• The USSR also indirectly fought the US by supplying North Korea and China with weapons, advisers, and aircraft. Soviet pilots flew missions disguised as Chinese.

US–China Hostility and Sino-Soviet Relations

• The Korean War transformed the Cold War from a European confrontation into a global conflict.

• It brought China into the Cold War, increasing hostility between the US and Communist China (the US refused to recognise China at the UN).

• The USSR supported China, but tensions grew because China felt the USSR had not provided enough help.

The course of the war

• The initial push by the North Koreans took them deep into SK, leaving only a corner of the peninsula out of their control. South Korean and American troops were pushed back into a small area around Pusan.

• General MacArthur led the UN forces in an amphibious landing at Inchon, in order to bypass the Korean troops and cut them off. Within a month he had retaken Seoul and driven the NKs back to the 38th parallel.

• The US then redefined its war aims and rather than just concentrating on ‘containment’ now decided on a policy of ‘roll back’. This would mean liberating the NKs from Communist rule and reuniting Korea. UN forces crossed the 38th parallel into NK territory and began a rapid advance capturing Pyongyang in October.

• The march towards the Yalu river made China concerned about its own security. On 27 November 1950, a force of 200 000 Chinese joined 150 000 NKs and sent the UN troops into a rapid retreat. Pyongyang was recaptured in December. There were heavy American casualties in the bitter cold, as many were taken prisoners

• A stalemate then developed around the 38th parallel

• Truman realised that the US needed to go back to the original aim. MacArthur disagreed, he was subsequently relieved of his command

• Peace talks started in 1951 with a focus on the repatriation of prisoners of war

• The war continued for another 2 years, during which time fighting continued, causing serious casualties. The US put pressure on China by threatening to use atomic weapons.

• A military armistice was finally signed at Panmunjom in July 1953.

Actions of the US as a result of the Korean War

Fearing that the attack of NK on SK would be followed by further Soviet aggression elsewhere in the world, the US carried out measures such as:

• NSC-68’s recommendation to triple the defence budget was implemented

• US land forces in Europe were greatly strengthened

• NATO was strengthened. Greece and Turkey were brought into NATO and military bases were set up in Turkey.

• The need for West Germany to become armed and integrated into NATO was given top priority

In Asia, the US also took several important steps:

• The Treaty of San Francisco with Japan was signed in 1952. This enabled the US to maintain military bases in Japan. The US also focused on building up Japan economically to make it a bulwark against Communism.

• Taiwan had to be defended as well. At the start of the Korean War, the US Seventh Fleet had already been sent to the Taiwan Strait to defend the island against possible Communist invasion

• China was now isolated by the US, It was condemned by the UN as an aggressor and prevented from taking a seat in the UN Security Council.

• The USA also became committed to supporting other regimes in Asia that it believed were resisting Communism.

• SEATO was formed as an anti-Communist containment bloc in the Asian area.

What did the Korean War mean for Korea

The cost in human lives and property was vast; there was also no hope of unification. This was no longer a local issue, but a superpower issue, and the ceasefire line turned into a heavily armed Cold War frontier.

What did the Korean War mean for China

Although now isolated by the US, China’s reputation grew greatly and it became a major power in the region. It preserved its own revolution, took on the US, and successfully ‘saved’ NK. This increased Mao’s reputation at home and strengthened the Chinese revolution.

However, it also meant that valuable resources at home were diverted away from recovery to the war effort, and in addition China’s aim of uniting Taiwan and China had become far more difficult to achieve.

What did the Korean War mean for the USSR

Although the USSR had kept out of direct conflict with the USA, the result of the Korean War were not good for the USSR. The USA’s decision to triple its defence budget, rearm West Germany, maintain troops in Europe, and fight Communism in Asia, meant that the Soviet Union was now embroiled in an even more intense Cold War standoff than had existed in 1950.

What did the Korean War mean for Southeast Asia

The USA’s perception that all Communist movements being part of a ‘monolithic’ movement, and its commitment to intervene wherever it saw the threat of Communism on the move, meant that Southeast Asia became involved in the Cold War. It was now harder for nationalist movements in the region to triumph in the post-colonial era and many of these groups were forced into increasing dependence on the USSR or China.

The effects of the Korean War on the Cold War

The Korean War caused the globalisation of the superpower rivalry and confrontation. The USA and USSR now found themselves embroiled in conflicts in Asia as well as Europe. It also led to the militarisation of the Cold War. To maintain the now-greater military commitments, US defence spending increased dramatically, running at around 10% of American GNP in the 1950s. In the Soviet Union, the Red Army increased from 2.8 million troops in 1950 to almost 5.8 million by 1955.