AP Psych Exam Review

Sklad

John Locke

British political philosopher. Wrote "An essay concerning Human Understanding" which argued that the mind at birth is a blank slate, therefore there are no innate ideas.

Tabula Rasa

Blank slate; a young mind not yet affected by experience (according to John Locke)

Nature vs Nurture

A longstanding controversy in psychology over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of both.

Maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Biological Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior. We are slaves to our biology (very much on the nature side of the debate)

Evolutionary Perspective

Psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of the natural selection of traits. Natural selection often promotes traits that help us survive

Natural Selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

Mutation

change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Twin Studies

a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior

Causation vs. Correlation

Causation, means that one event caused another. X led to or is responsible for Y. Correlation means that two events are associated. They are often seen at the same time.

Neurons

Individual nerve cells.

Dendrites

Rootlike parts of the cell that stretch out from the cell body; grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons.

Cell body/soma

Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.

Axon

Wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

A fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses.

Terminal buttons

The branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters.

Synapse

The space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron.

Graphing the Firing of a Neuron

A stimulus (like a brain signal) is sent to the neuron. Once the stimulus surpasses the threshold, the neuron must fire (all

Action potential

The electric message firing of neurons.

refractory period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated

All-or-none principle

States that a neuron must either fire completely or not at all; a neuron cannot fire a little or a lot - the impulse is the same every time.

acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. Could be linked to Alzheimers

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter that controls motor movement and alertness; a lack of it is associated with Parkinson's disease while an overabundance is associated with schizophrenia.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that act as pain control; excess or deficits of endorphins are involved in addictions.

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter that act as mood control; a lack of it is associated with clinical depression.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Helps brain cells communicate. Not enough gives you seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate

A major excitatory (stimulating) neurotransmitter; involved in thinking, learning and memory

Afferent (sensory) neurons

Carry nerve impulses from sensory stimuli towards the central nervous system and brain

Interneuron

Takes the messages from afferent neurons in the brain or spinal cord and sends them elsewhere in the brain or on to efferent neurons.

Efferent (motor) neuron

Takes information from the brain to the rest of the body.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Our brain and spinal cord (all the nerves housed within bone); transmits information from the rest of the body to the brain.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Consists of all the nerves not encased in bone; divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Somatic nervous system

Controls our voluntary muscle movements.

Autonomic nervous system

Controls the automatic functions of our body; divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

Sympathetic nervous system

Mobilizes our body to respond to stress.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Responsible for slowing down our body after a stress response.

Survey Method

a research method that involves gathering information from people through the use of surveys or questionnaires

Case Study

Highly in-depth study of one person, group, or event. Nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to find patterns. By examining an individual or group so closely, the hope is that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

Longitudinal Study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

Experiments

a technique that tests predicted relationships among variables in a controlled environment

Cross-Sectional Studies

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

Correlational Studies

a research method that examines how variables are related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them.

Correlation vs Causation

Sometimes called Illusory Correlation. Can we be sure that A causes B? Psychologist must be sure of this when they run tests.

Scatterplots

A graph that illustrates the relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Can have a value ranging from +1.00 to

p-value

A number that helps researchers decide if results are statistically significant (not due to chance).

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

average

Median

Middle number

Standard Deviations

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve/distribution

a symmetrical, bell

Representative Sample

a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Sample Bias

the effect of having a sample that does not represent all segments of the population

Independent Variable

variable that is manipulated

Dependent Variables

a variable changed by other variables

Confounding (Extraneous) Variable

Variables, other than the independent, that can influence the outcome of an experiment.

Placebo

something which has a positive mental effect, but no physical effect

Double Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Operational Definition

Clear definitions of the independent and dependent variables, to ensure that the study can be replicated accurately.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Informed Consent

Written document in which a potential subject agrees to participate in a research study.

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

APA

American Psychological Association provides ethical guidelines for studies

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects

How to divide the brain

1. Old Brain vs. Cerebral Cortex
2. Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
3. Hemispheres: Left and Right
4. Front to Back: Forebrain, Midbrain, Hindbrain

Lesioning

The removal or destruction of part of the brain.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Detects brain waves; shows researchers the types of brain waves produced during different stages of consciousness.

Computerized axial tomography (CAT/CT) scan

A sophisticated X-ray that uses several X-ray cameras that rotate around the brain and combine the pictures into a detailed three-dimensional picture of the brain's structure.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material and creates a detailed image of the brain.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Combines elements of the MRI and PET scans to show details of brain structure with information about blood flow in the brain, tying brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks.

Position emission tomography (PET) scan

Lets researchers see what areas of the brain are most active during certain tasks; measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using.

Medulla

Involved in the control of our blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing; located above the spinal cord; part of the hindbrain.

Pons

Connects the hindbrain with the midbrain and the forebrain; also involved in the control of facial expressions; located just above the medulla and toward the front; part of the hindbrain.

Cerebellum

Coordinates some habitual muscle movements; located on the bottom rear of the brain; part of the hindbrain.

Reticular formation

A netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention; if this does not function, we fall into a deep coma; part of the midbrain.

Thalamus

Responsible for receiving the sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sending them to the appropriate areas in the rest of the brain; Mostly related to our 5 senses, this part of the brain organizes input from what we see, hear, feel, and taste (not smell). It is located on top of the brain stem; part of the forebrain.

Hypothalamus

Controls several metabolic functions including body temperature, sexual arousal (libido), hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system; located right next to the thalamus; part of the forebrain.

Amygdala

Vital to our experiences of emotion; located near the end of each hippocampal arm; part of the forebrain.

Hippocampus

Vital to our memory system

LImbic system

Consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala; deals with aspects of emotion and memory.

Fissures

Wrinkles in the brain.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Contralateral control

Describes the ability of the right hemisphere to control the left side of the body and vice versa.

Split-brain patients

Patients whose corpus callosum has been cut to treat severe epilepsy; cannot orally report information only presented to the right hemisphere since the spoken language centers of the brain are usually located in the left hemisphere.

Endocrine system

System of glands that secrete hormones that affect many different biological processes in our body; controlled by the hypothalamus.

Adrenal glands

Produce adrenaline, which signals the rest of the body to prepare for fight or flight.

Pancreas

Located by stomach. Regulates the level of sugar in the blood and produces insulin

Thyroid

Located in neck. Regulates metabolism and calcium. Makes Thyroxine

Ovaries / Testes

produce sex hormones (O = Estrogen / T = Testosterone)

Pineal Gland

secretes melatonin (sleepy)

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. The master gland.

Turner's syndrome

People born with only a single X chromosome in the spot usually occupied by the twenty

Klinefelter's syndrome

People born with an extra X chromosome, resulting in an XXY pattern; causes minimal sexual development and personality traits.

Down syndrome

People born with an extra chromosome on the twenty-first pair; causes some physical characteristics like a rounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, and some degree of mental retardation.

Consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

Cells in hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. Responds to light, modifying our feelings of sleepiness