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Giuseppe Garibaldi
Italian nationalist leader who unified southern Italy through military campaigns; key figure in the Risorgimento.
Victor Emmanuel II
First king of a unified Italy; formerly king of Sardinia.
Camillo Benso di Cavour
Prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia; led diplomatic efforts for Italian unification.
Otto von Bismarck
Chancellor of Prussia; architect of German unification using 'blood and iron' and Realpolitik.
Realpolitik
Politics based on practical objectives rather than ideals; associated with Bismarck.
Crimean War
Conflict (1853-1856) between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, and Britain; weakened Russia and led to reforms.
New Woman
Feminist ideal in late 19th-early 20th century Europe representing independence and challenge to traditional roles.
Suffrage (different kinds)
The right to vote; includes universal, women's, and restricted suffrage based on property or race.
Unions
Worker organizations formed to protect and advance labor rights and wages.
Syndicalists
Advocated direct action and strikes by workers to seize control of industry.
Consumer revolution
18th-19th century surge in consumption of goods due to industrialization and marketing.
German Social Democratic Party (SPD)
Marxist-influenced political party advocating workers' rights in Germany.
Home rule
Self-government for a region within a larger state; especially refers to Ireland under British rule.
Triple Entente
Pre-WWI alliance between France, Russia, and Britain against the Triple Alliance.
July Crisis
The events after Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination that led to WWI.
Trench Warfare
Stalemated, defensive war tactic used in WWI, particularly on the Western Front.
The Homefront
Civilian efforts and conditions during wartime, including rationing and industry shifts.
Total War
Warfare that mobilizes all of society's resources, including civilians.
Russian Revolution of 1917
Overthrew Tsar Nicholas II; led to Bolshevik rise under Lenin.
Vladimir Lenin
Leader of the Bolsheviks; established a communist regime in Russia.
Easter Rising
1916 Irish rebellion against British rule; crushed but inspired independence movement.
Impressionism
Art movement emphasizing light, color, and everyday life with loose brushwork.
Expressionism
Art expressing emotional experience over physical reality, often distorted and vivid.
Dawes Plan
1924 U.S.-backed economic plan to help Germany pay WWI reparations and stabilize.
Black Thursday
October 24, 1929; U.S. stock market crash that triggered the Great Depression.
Nationalism
Strong identification with and support for one's nation, often at the expense of others.
Italian Fascism
Authoritarian nationalist regime led by Mussolini; anti-communist, militarist, and expansionist.
German Nazism
Hitler's fascist ideology combining nationalism, racism, and totalitarian control.
Japanese Imperialism
Japan's expansionist policies leading to colonization of Korea, Manchuria, and war in Asia.
Spanish Civil War
Conflict (1936-1939) between Republicans and Nationalists under Franco; precursor to WWII.
Vichy Regime
Nazi-collaborating government in southern France during WWII under Marshal Pétain.
Battle of Britain
WWII air campaign by Germany against the UK in 1940; Britain successfully resisted.
December 7, 1941
Attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan; brought the U.S. into WWII.
Russian and Italian Campaigns
Eastern and Southern European WWII theaters; key battles against Axis powers.
Battle of the Bulge
Final major German offensive in WWII, winter 1944-45.
Battle of Berlin
Final European battle in WWII; resulted in Hitler's suicide and German surrender.
Okinawa
Bloody WWII battle in the Pacific; foreshadowed invasion of Japan.
The Jewish Question
Nazi euphemism for antisemitic policies that led to the Holocaust.
Dresden
German city heavily bombed by Allies in 1945; symbol of civilian suffering.
Manhattan Project
Secret U.S. project to develop the atomic bomb during WWII.
Hiroshima
First city hit with an atomic bomb on August 6, 1945.
Nagasaki
Second atomic bomb target on August 9, 1945; led to Japan's surrender.
Postmodernism
Cultural movement rejecting modernist ideals; skeptical of universal truths and grand narratives.
Containment
U.S. Cold War strategy to prevent the spread of communism.
Cold War
Ideological and geopolitical tension between the U.S. and USSR from 1945 to 1991.
Berlin Wall
Barrier dividing East and West Berlin (1961-1989); symbol of Cold War division.
McCarthyism
Anti-communist paranoia in the U.S. during the 1950s; led by Senator McCarthy.
Red Scare
Fear of communist infiltration in U.S. politics and society.
The Space Race (major events)
Cold War competition for space dominance: Sputnik (1957), Moon landing (1969).
Baby Boomers
Generation born post-WWII (1946-1964) during a population and economic boom.
Mass Culture
Culture produced and consumed by large populations; includes TV, movies, advertising.
Norman Rockwell
American illustrator known for idealized depictions of everyday U.S. life.
Martin Luther King Jr.
Civil rights leader advocating nonviolent resistance; delivered 'I Have a Dream' speech.
Peaceful Protest
Nonviolent method of resistance used in civil rights movements.
Civil Rights Movement
1950s-60s U.S. movement to end racial segregation and discrimination.
Feminism
Movement for women's political, economic, and social equality.
Simone de Beauvoir
French feminist philosopher; author of The Second Sex, challenged gender norms.
Anti-War Protest
Demonstrations opposing wars (notably the Vietnam War) for moral/political reasons.
Student Movements
1960s-70s activism by students for social change, civil rights, and against war.
Iran Hostage Crisis
1979-1981 seizure of U.S. embassy staff in Tehran during the Iranian Revolution.
Iran-Contra Affair
1980s U.S. scandal involving secret arms sales to Iran and funding of Nicaraguan rebels.
Various Olympics as Political Statement
Olympic Games used to express political agendas (e.g., 1936 Berlin, 1980 Moscow boycott).
Star Wars
Nickname for Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative; plan for missile defense system.
Glasnost
Gorbachev's policy of openness in the USSR.
Perestroika
Gorbachev's reform policy to restructure the Soviet economy and political system.
de las Casas
"Are these not men? Do they not have rational souls?"
Bossuet
"The prince is minister of God."
Galileo
"I do not feel obliged to believe that the same God who has endowed us with sense, reason, and intellect has intended us to forgo their use."
Hobbes
"The life of man, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
Locke
"All men are created equal in a state of nature."
Kant
"Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own reason!"
Swift
"A modest proposal..." (e.g. selling children for meat)
Sieyès
"What is the Third Estate? Everything."
Robespierre
"Terror is nothing other than prompt, severe, inflexible justice."
Burke
"The Revolution will be completed when the people are made to love their chains."
Marx
"Workers of the world, unite!"
Ure
"To devise expedients for superseding the work of human hands."
Churchill
"An iron curtain has descended across the Continent."
de Beauvoir
"One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman."
Himmler
"We had the moral right, we had the duty to our people, to destroy this people..."