BioPsychology Exam 3

Hormones

organic chemical messenger produced and released by endocrine glands

Hormones are released ..

into the bloodstream

Neurotransmitters

endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other

NTs and Hormones are similar

• - chemical messengers

• - can both act on neurons

NTs and Hormones are different

• - NTs are released by neurons in the synapse (synaptic cleft)

• - faster

• - less widespread

• - effects do not last as long

• - Hormones are released into the bloodstream

Cytokines

small proteins that are crucial in controlling the growth and activity of other immune system cells and blood cells

Cytokines and Hormones are similar

• - chemical messengers

• - they are proteins (some hormones are proteins)

• - both released in blood stream

Cytokines and Hormones are different

• - cytokines are produced by cells of the immune system

• - hormones are produced by endocrine glands

Pheromones

substances that are secreted to the outside by an individual and can affect others of the same species.

pheromones and hormones are similar

both chemical messengers

pheromones and hormones are different

pheromones are “ectocrine” = outside of the body

hormones are “endocrine” = inside the body

3 types of hormones

• peptide

• steroids

• monoamines

peptide

• - made of amino acids

• - hydro/lipo

• - stored in vesicles

• - does not need carrier protein (travel on their own)

• - receptors on cell surface

• - ex: vasopressin, oxytocin, insulin

steroids

• - derive from cholesterol (lipid)

• - hydro/lipo

• - do not need storage since they are released immediately

• - needs a carrier protein

• - receptors inside of the cell

• - ex: cortisol, testosterone, progesterone, estrogen

Monoamines

• - derive from single amino acid

• - can act like peptide or steroid (so depends)

• - ex of monoamines that can act like steroids: thyroid, melatonin

• - ex of monoamines that can act like peptides: serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine

organizational-activational hypothesis

During development, sex steroids organize the components of the nervous system involved in subsequent sex-typical behaviors in adulthood, steroid hormones activate, modulate, or inhibit the function of these existing neural circuits 

different types of aggression

• territorial

• dominance

• irritable

• physical and non-physical

Testosterone in research studies

study found that testosterone levels are positively associated with libido in men

Estrogen in research studies

Stimulating receptors in the vlVMH can control mating or aggression behaviors

The winner effect

increases testosterone

androgens mediate winning effect

winning begets winning

A (delta) = pain

thinner and sparsely myelinated

C = pain

very thin, little to no myelination

Nociceptors → Heat

TRPV1

Nociceptors → Cold

TRPM8

Nociceptors → pressure/cutting

ASIC, TRPA1

Nociceptors → Chemicals

ASIC, Cytokine, TRPV1

Ascending Pathway: Lateral System

Nociceptor

spinal cord

medulla (brainstem)

midbrain (PAG and PB)

Thalamus → main

S1 (main regions) → main

Ascending Pathway: Medial System

nociceptor

spinal cord

medulla (brain stem)

midbrain (specifically PB)

limbic areas and cingulate cortex → main region

Descending Pathway

PAG and RVM → main regions

Examples of factors that can influence pain

Opioids/opiates and pain relief

sex and gender differences

societal effects

cultural factors

Drug mechanisms → how they work on the synapse and affect neurotransmitter function

altering synthesis

causing vesicles to leak

increase or decrease release

decrease reuptake

block the breakdown to an inactive chemical

directly stimulating or blocking postsynaptic receptor (agonist and antagonist)

Agonist

mimics or ENHANCES the effects of neurotransmitters

Antagonist

occupy receptors, BLOCKING access of the neurotransmitter, or REDUCE neurotransmitter production/release

Fastest route of administration → how quickly it passes blood brain barrier

inhalation

Slowest route of administration → how quickly it passes blood brain barrier

Transdermal

Routes in order from fastest to slowest

inhalation

injection

intranasal

ingestion transdermal

What do psychoactive/addictive drugs do?

stimulate release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens

Reward Pathway

From VTA

Through medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

to nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex

3 main drug classifications

Stimulants

Depressants

Hallucinogens

Stimulants

increases excitement, alertness, motor activity, elevates mood

Depressants

drugs that slow CNS activity

Hallucinogens/Dissociative

drugs that alter perception (e.g., cause hallucinations)

Stimulants

Amphetamines (Increase DA, NE and 5HT)

Cocaine (Block DA, 5HT and NE)

Nicotine (Ach agonist, increase DA)

Depressants

Alcohol (GABA and DA agonist, decrease glutamate)

Anxiolytics (GABA agonist, glutamate antagonist)

Opioids/Opiates (GABA agonist, increase DA, Opioid antagonist)

Marijuana/Cannabis (cannabinoid agonist)

Hallucinogens

LSD (5HT agonist, affects glutamate and DA)
Ketamine (5HT agonist)

Psilocybin (blocks NMDA; acts on glutamate)

Stages of Addiction

• - Intoxication/Binge

• - Withdrawal/Negative Effect

• - Craving/Anticipation

Intoxication/Binge

DA dumped into NAC from VTA

Amygdala

Dorsal striatum

Withdrawal/Negative Effect

Feedback loops and cellular behavior altered

lower baseline DA levels

Increased CRF

increased dynorphin

Craving/Anticipation

(key to relapse; preoccupation with drugs)

CeA

glutamate release in PFC

Methods used to study drug effects in animals:

Drug reinforcement and seeking behaviors

drug taking for withdrawal

preoccupation/craving

Methods used to study drug effects in animals:

drug vs. placebo

double blind procedure

self reports of effects

physiological measures

neuroimaging

Spectrum of Psychoactive Substance Use

beneficial use

casual/non-problematic use

problematic use

chronic dependence

Beneficial Use of drugs

has positive health, spiritual or social impact

casual/non-problematic use

recreational, casual or other use that has negligible health or social effects

problematic use

use that begins to have negative consequences for individuals, friends/family, or society

chronic dependence

has become habitual and compulsive despite negative health and social effects