exam 2 - lifespan development

know the milestones and ages at which they occur!!!

symbol

system for representing our thought, feelings, and knowledge for communicating them to other people

sensorimotor period

• ages 0-2

• part of piaget’s theory of development

• kids use senses to learn about the world

pre-operational period

• ages 2-7

• part of piaget’s theory of development

• has two substages: symbolic function and intuitive thought

• symbolic thought is increasing, and there’s no logical, operational thinking

symbolic function substage

• ages 2-4

• kids can mentally represent an object that is not present

• example: draw a sun on a cloudy day OR play pretend with friends

egocentrism

• inability to distinguish between your own and someone else’s perspective

• measured by using the three mountains task

three mountains task

• test in which a child is asked to describe the perspective of a researcher

• children under 4 don’t pass this test and are therefore egocentric

intuitive thought substage

• ages 4-6

• kids want to know the answers to all sorts of questions

• example: “but why…?”

conservation

the amount of something stays the same despite changes in its appearance

centration

centering on one aspect and excluding all others

dual representation

• a symbolic artifact must be represented mentally in two ways at the same

• shrinking machine task helps children understand this

• example: a map with roads on it represents what actual roads look like

shrinking machine task

• researchers show children a regular-sized toy, then put it in a “shrinking machine” and then ask the child to find the smaller toy in a room that represents the one that they’re in

• doesn’t require dual representation

saliency

• quality of being noticeable

• reducing this helps children understand dual representation

window task

• model of a room is placed behind a window so the child cannot touch it; child is asked to find a toy in a regular-sized room that is located in the same spot within the model

• child performs better on this task because the model is inaccessible

theory of mind

• understanding that others have mental states - desires, thoughts, beliefs, knowledge, and feelings - that affect their behavior

• this is important to have for social functioning and understanding others

• tested by the false belief task

false belief task

• tests whether children can represent another person’s beliefs when that belief is no longer correct

• children pass this test around 4-5 years old

• if children fail, it means that they don’t have theory of mind (still egocentric)

is preschool mandated in the united states

no

universal preschool

• a policy that allows all preschool-aged children to have access to high-quality education

benefits of attending preschool

• short-term: better reading and math scores in kindergarten

• long-term: lower crime rate, lower substance abuse, higher levels of educational attainment, and higher socioeconomic status

constructivist preschool

• active involvement in learning

• different curriculum based on the child

• less formal instruction

• teacher is a facilitator of knowledge

• based on piaget’s and vygotsky’s theories

academic preschool

• formal instruction in math, science, reading, and writing

• they emphasize routine and rules which involve punishment and praise

play-based preschool

• free play, imagination, little formal instruction

• kids are encouraged to interact with one another

montessori preschool

• individualized learning at a child’s own pace

• there are long periods of uninterrupted “learning”

• belief is that a child will thrive with the right environment and materials

benefits of attending a montessori preschool

• higher academic achievement

• increased theory of mind

• increased mastery choice

• higher enjoyment of school

parent beliefs related to play

• they think that play and academics are separate processes

• they rate learning literacy and numeracy skills as more important than play

learning through play

• kids have the greatest gains in learning in play-based conditions

• pre-test scores in schools are higher when they learn in play-based environments

head start program

• a federally-funded program that helps low-income children and families develop the skills they need to succeed in school

• short term benefits: better color identification, vocabulary skills, and applied problem skills

achievement gaps

when one group of students outperforms another group of students

emotional regulation

• the ability to exert control over one’s own emotional state

• important for becoming socially competent, self-regulation, and executive functioning

executive function

• managing one’s thought to engage in goal-directed behavior and self-control

• benefits: higher academic and social competence, verbal fluency, rational thinking, attentiveness, planning, ability to deal with frustration, SAT scores, higher educational levels, self-esteem, and stress-coping abilities

emotional labeling

• process of naming your emotions as you feel them

• linguistic cues are better than pictorial cues when learning about emotions

what age can kids label happiness

age 2

at what age can kids label anger, fear, and sadness

ages 3-4

at what point can kids label surprise and disgust

late preschool to early elementary school

at what point can kids label pride, shame and guilt

mid-elementary school

self-conscious emotions

• pride

• shame

• guilt

at what point can kids understand the causes of emotions

preschool

set shifting

• ability to switch mental sets of information to adapt to a changing environment

• a component of executive functioning

• example: sorting objects by shape or color

inhibitory control

• ability to control one’s thoughts, actions, emotions, and attention to respond appropriately

• a component of executive functioning

• example: when playing simon says, don’t do something if simon doesn’t say

self-awareness at 3-4 years old

• kids describe themselves by physical and material attributes

• example: i have brown hair

self-awareness at 4-5 years old

• kids describe themselves and others by psychological attributes and emotions that tend to be positive

• example: i feel happy

friend

peer with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, and positive relationship

what influences friendship

• friendly and prosocial peers

• similar interests

• similar behavior

• age

• gender

• proximity

• similar racial/ethnic group

mildred parten’s types of play

• solitary

• onlooker

• parallel

• associative

• cooperative

solitary play

• first stage of mildred parten’s development of play

• childs play alone

onlooker play

• second stage of mildred parten’s development of play

• child watches others play

parallel play

• third stage of mildred parten’s development of play

• children play in similar ways, but alone

associative play

• fourth stage of mildred parten’s development of play

• children interact but don’t take turns

cooperative play

• fifth stage of mildred parten’s development of play

• children play together

rough and tumble play

• play that seems to be rough, but there is no intent to harm

• begins around age 2 and peaks at age 7

• boys and fathers engage in this more frequently

benefits of rough and tumble play

• fewer emotional and social difficulties

• better adjustment to school

• more likely to be popular

pretend play/sociodramatic play

• child transforms the physical environment into a symbol

• begins around 18-24 months of age

• occurs with peers around age 4

benefits of pretend play

• can support children’s development of theory of mind

• can teach social competence

• increases language development

• increases problem-solving/reasoning

• increases creativity

• increases self-regulation

dimensions of parenting styles

• warmth/responsiveness

• control/demandingness

high warmth/responsiveness can be seen as…

affectionate and involved

low warmth/responsiveness can be seen as…

uninvolved and potentially hostile

high control/demandingness can be seen as…

setting and upholding standards

high control/demandingness can be seen as…

setting and upholding standards

low control/demandingness can be seen as…

little control

types of parent’s styles

• authoritarian

• permissive

• negligent

• authoritative

authoritarian parenting style

• low warmth/responsiveness

• high control/demandingness

• impose rules and expect obedience

permissive parenting style

• high warmth/responsiveness

• low control/demandingness

• few demands, set few limits, use little punishment

negligent parenting style

• low warmth/responsiveness

• low control/demandingness

• neither demanding nor responsive

• can be abusive

authoritative parenting style

• high warmth/responsiveness

• high control/demandingness

• set rules but allow exceptions

• good at open communication

how authoritarian parenting style affects children

tend to be more conscientious, obedient, and unhappy

how permissive parenting style affects children

tend to lack self-control

how negligent parenting style affects children

tend to be immature, sad, and lonely

how authoritative parenting style affects children

tend to be successful, happy and generous

effects of using spanking as a punishment

• “benefits” are temporary

• teaches discrimination among situations (example: kids stop doing bad behavior in front of the person who does the spanking, but continue the bad behavior in front of those who don’t do the spanking)

• teaches fear

• models aggressive behavior

symptoms of adhd

• inattentiveness (example: easily distracted, careless mistakes, and forgetful)

• hyperactive and impulsive (example: fidgeting, unable to concentrate, and excessive talking)

• these symptoms must appear before age 12

treatment of adhd

• medication (most common)

• diet changes

• biofeedback

• memory training

autism symptoms

• impairment in social interaction

• restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interest, or activities

• delayed language, movement, and cognitive skills

• unusual mood/emotional reactions

• unusual eating/sleeping habits

• symptoms must be present before age 8

autism treatment

• behavioral management therapy

• medication treatment

• occupational therapy

symptoms of dyslexia

• problems reading a single word

• regularly confuses certain letters

• regularly writes words backwards

• difficulty with grammar

• reads below their grade level

dyslexia

language-based disability in which a person has trouble understanding words, sentences, or paragraphs

dyslexia treatment

• no cure

• accommodations such as extra time on exams, note-taking technology, and reading interventions could help

dyscalculia

mathematics disability in which a person has difficult time solving arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts

symptoms of dyscalculia

• normal or accelerated language acquisition (verbal, reading, and writing)

• inconsistent results in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

• poor mental math ability

• inability to grasp and remember math concepts, rules, formulas, and sequence (order of operations)

treatment for dyscalculia

• no cure

• one-on-one learning programs

• accommodations

dysgraphia

writing disability in which a person finds it hard to form letters or write within a defined space

symptoms of dysgraphia

• generally illegible writing

• mixtures of print and cursive, upper and lowercase, or irregular sizes/shapes/slant of letters

• unfinished words or letters

• omitted words

• cramped or unusual grip on a pencil

• carefully watching the hand that is writing

treatment of dysagraphia

• no cure

• occupational therapy to build hand and wrist strength

• practicing writing (cursive can be easier than print)

misconceptions about learning disabilities

• people mistakenly associate them with sensory impairments

• parents and public mistakenly believe that these are a product of the home environment

• people think that these are a result of laziness

• parents, educators, and the general public incorrectly believe that these are directly linked to low IQ

concrete operational stage

• one of piaget’s stages of development

• occurs at ages 7-11

• characterized by development of logical thought in concrete situations

• success on the conservation test is key for this stage

reversibility

• following transformation from beginning to end and reversing it (example: water can be frozen and thawed back into a liquid)

• characteristic of the concrete operational stage

classification

ability to identify the properties of categories, to relate categories or classes to one another, and to use categorical information to solve problems

centration

focusing in on one aspect and ignoring the rest

concrete operations in piaget’s theory of development

reversibility, classification, centration, seriation, and transitivity

seriation

• ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension

• example: child can order shapes by size

transitivity

• ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions

• example: if a>b and b>c, then a>c

difference between piaget and vygotsky’s theories

piaget took more of an individual perspective while vygtosky took more of a sociocultural perspective

zone of proximal development

• difference between what a learner can do on their own versus what they can do with guidance

• describes the process of learning

mentors

• people who support child’s learning

• process is: ask questions, culture shapes responses, and then responses inform learning

• provide scaffolding to the learner

scaffolding

• temporary support tailored to a learner’s needs and abilities

• helps the learner master the next task in a given process

role of language in vygostky’s theory

• a critical cultural guide

• facilitator of social interactions

• private speech serves as a cognitive self-guidance system

piaget’s testing of morality on children

• observing children playing games

• interviewing children using open-ended questions related to fairness, inequality, punishment, rules, etc

piaget’s moral development

• heteronomous morality (<7 years old)

• transition period (7-10 years old)

• autonomous morality (11-12 years)

heteronomous morality

• piaget’s first stage of moral development

• occurs at <7 years old

• rules and duties are unchangeable and given by adult

• consequences, not motives, determine whether an action is good or bad

transition period

• piaget’s second stage of moral development

• occurs at 7-10 years old

• increased peer interaction → rules can be constructed by a group

autonomous morality

• piaget’s third stage of moral development

• occurs at 11-12 years old

• consider an individual’s motives when evaluating their crimes

• no longer blind obedience to authority

helping. intentional

• stage of infant’s moral development

• goal is known

• example: protagonist cannot reach toy; other character knocks toy within reach of the protagonist

• preferred by infants