Unit Review 2

Chapter 5,6,7,8

Functions of Cardiovascular-Transport

the cardiovascular system not only transports oxygen to the cells of the body but also removes carbon dioxide and other waste products of metabolism

Functions of Cardiovascular- Homeostasis

The cardiovascular system plays a central role in maintaining homeostasis for a variety of internal conditions, including temperature, pH balance, and water and electrolyte levels.

Functions of Cardiovascular-Lyphatic system

Assists to working with immune system, the lymph vessels collect excess interstitial fluid and return it to the cardiovascular system

Types of blood vessels- How are they designed differently and why?-Artery

Arteries- Carry blood away from the heart; thick, muscular, elastic walls ( to withstand high pressure)

Types of blood vessels- How are they designed differently and why?-Arterioles

Smaller arteries, control blood flow with smooth muscle 

Types of blood vessels- How are they designed differently and why?-Capillaries

Very think walls (one cell thick) for exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes 

Types of blood vessels- How are they designed differently and why?- Venules

Small veins that collect blood from capillaries

Types of blood vessels- How are they designed differently and why?-Veins

Carry blood toward the heart; thinner walls, lower pressure, contain valves to prevent backflow 

The Heart-Anatomy and passage of blood through-Right ventricle 

pumping blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary trunk- receives deoxygenated blood. Superior/Inferior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary arteries, lungs

The Heart-Anatomy and passage of blood through-Left ventricle 

contracts (at the same time as the right ventricle), sending blood through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta. receives oxygenated blood, pulmonary veins, left atrium, biscupid (mitral valve), left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, body

Cardiac Cycle- conduction system of the heart

Sinoatrial (SA) node-peacemaker (initiates heartbeat), atrioventricular (AV) node-delays signal before ventricles contract, AV (Bundle of His) & Purkinje fibers-spread impulse for ventricular contraction

cycle: systole-contraction (ventricular pressure), diastole-relaxation (ventricles fill with blood)

Blood pressure-Systolic/diastolic, where is pressure highest in circulation and why?

Systolic-Pressure in arteries during ventricular contraction, Diastolic- pressure in arteries during ventricular relaxation, Highest pressure- in arteries, especially the aorta (because blood is pumped directly from the left ventricle). Lowest pressure-in veins especially vena cavae (blood returning to the heart)

Capillary Exchange-What is exchanged and what is the connection here with lymph?

Exchanged- Arterial end: blood pressure forces water O2, and nutrients. Venous end: Osmotic pressure pulls CO2 and wastes back in. Excess fluid not reabsorbed is collected by lymphatic capillaries-returned to circulation 

Cardiovascular Diseases-Familiar?

Hypertension-high blood pressure, atherosclerosis-lead to stroke, heart attack, angina pectoris (chest pain), or an aneurysm. 

Erythrocytes-terms of numbers, how plentiful are they in your body?

(Red blood cells). Small biconcave disks, usually between 6 and 8 micrometers in diameter. Red blood cells are extremely plentiful and have about 4-6 million red blood cells per microliter of blood. Makes up about 45% of blood volume.  

Functions of Blood

Transport- O2, CO2 nutrients, hormones, wastes. Regulation-Body temp, pH, fluid/electrolyte balance. Protection- Immune cells (WBCs), antibodies, clotting factors 

How does blood transport gases? What can effect your red blood cells and your ability to transport gases?

Blood transports carbon dioxide. Every time a person exhales, the carbon dioxide waste is eliminated. Blood also transports other wastes, such as excess nitrogen from the breakdown of proteins, to the kidneys for elimination. RBCs and gas transports such as low hemoglobin/iron- anemia. Low RBC count-blood loss, bone marrow/kidney disease. Abnormal shape- sickle cell, thalassemia. Environmental-high altitude, smoking, carbon monoxide. Destruction of RBCs-hemolysis, infections (malaria) autoimmune attack.

White blood cells- two major categories and types, diseases of the lymph system 

White blood cells-(leukocytes). Granular leukocytes- visible granules in cytoplasm. Neutrophils-most abundant; fight bacteria. Eosinophils-attack parasites; role in allergies. Basophils- release histamine; involved in allergic reactions. Agranulocytes-(no visible granules). Lymphocytes- B cells (antibody production). T-cells (cell-mediated immunity). Natural Killer cells (destroy infected/cancer cells). Monocytes-become macrophages; engulf pathogens & debris. Lymph system- Leukemia- cancer of white blood cells. Lymphoma-cancer of lymph nodes (Hodgkin’s, non-Hodgkin’s). Lymphedema- swelling due to blocked lymphatic drainage. Infections- mononucleosis, HIV/AIDS (targets lymphocytes). 

Platelets and clotting-does everyone clot? Fall of am empire

Platelets= fragments of megakaryocytes. Function: form platelet plug, release clotting factors, help fibrin mesh form. Not everyone clots normally: Hemophilia-genetic disorder, missing clotting factors. Thrombocytopenia-low platelet count. Vitamin K deficiency-reduces clotting. 

ABO Blood groups- blood typing, Rh factor and babies

ABO system: A=has A antigen, anti-B antibodies. B=has B antigen, anti-A antibodies. AB= has A & B antigens, non antibodies-universal recipient. O=no antigens, anti-A & B antibodies-universal donor. Rh factor: Rh+=has Rh antigen. Rh-=no Rh antigen. Problem in pregnancy: if mom is Rh- and baby is Rh+, mom may make antibodies against baby’s RBCs (hemolytic disease of the newborn). Treated/prevented with RhoGAM injection

Lymphatic Vessels & Organs

Primary organs (where lymphocytes form & mature): Red bone marrow-makes B&T cells; B cells mature. Thymus-T cells mature. Secondary organs (where lymphocytes are activated): Lymph nodes- filter lymph, trap pathogens. Spleen-filters blood, stores lymphocytes. Tonsils, Peyer’s patches, appendix-defend entry points.  

Innate Immune Defense

Physical barriers-skin, mucous membranes. Chemical barriers-stomach acid, tear, saliva, lysozyme. Cells-phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages), natural killer cells. Inflammation & fever. Complement system (proteins that enhance immune response). 

Adaptive immune defense (specific, slower, memory)

Humoral (B-cell) Response: B cells- mature in bone marrow. Types: Plasma cells (make antibodies) & Memory B cells (long-term immunity). Antibodies bind antigens, mark them for destruction. Connection to vaccination: vaccines expose body to antigen-create memory B cells-faster response next time. Cell-Mediated (T-cell) Response-T cells- mature in thymus. Act directly against infected/cancerous cells. Self-recognition: T cells undergo selection in thymus to avoid attacking body’s own cells (self-tolerance). Types: Helper T cells (CD4+) coordinate immune response. Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+)-kill infected/cancer cells. Memory T cells- long-term protection. Regulatory T cells-prevent overreaction/autoimmunity.

Acquired Immunity- but did you die? Types of active and passive immunity

Active immunity (your body makes antibodies): Natural-After infection. Artificial- after vaccination. Passive immunity (antibodies are given to you): Natural-mother-baby (placenta, breast milk). Artificial-injection of antibodies (antivenom)

Hypersensitivity Reactions

Allergies-exaggerated to harmless antigens (pollen, food). Autoimmune diseases-immune system attacks self (lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis). Immunosuppressive drugs-used for autoimmune diseases or organ transplants (to prevent rejection).

Pathogens-bacteria, viruses, and prions: general structure, living and non-living 

Bacteria-single-cell organisms, prokaryotic, cell well, plasma membrane, ribosomes, DNA in nucleoid- living (can reproduce). Viruses-Protein coat (capsid) + genetic material (DNA or RNA); sometimes lipid envelope with spikes-Non-living (cannot reproduce without a host cell). Misfolded proteins that cause other proteins to misfold- Non-living (no DNA/RNA, no metabolism, cannot reproduce independently).

What are the three pillars of modern life? Did you watch the video in this module?

Three pillars generally refer to sanitation, vaccination, antibiotics. These have drastically reduced disease burden and increased human lifespan. Sanitation-clean water, waste removal. Vaccination-immunity to infectious diseases. Antibiotics-treatment of bacterial infections

Aseptic/aseptic technique, sterile, disinfection, sanitizing

Aseptic technique: procedures to prevent contamination by pathogens. Sterile: Completely free of all microorganisms (including spores). Disinfection: Killing/removing most pathogens on surface (does not necessarily kill spores). Sanitizing: Reducing pathogen numbers to a safe level (often by cleaning and disinfecting)

Infectious diseases- epidemic, pandemic and outbreak

Outbreak: Sudden rise in cases in a specific area. Epidemic: Larger scale outbreak, affecting a region or country 

HIV/AIDS – difference between these two terms, pathogen, progression, prognosis

HIV-Human immunodeficiency Virus (pathogen). AIDS-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (advanced stage of HIV infection). Difference: HIV is the virus; AIDS is the condition resulting from prolonged HIV infection. Progression: HIV infection- immune system weakening-AIDS. Prognosis: With treatment (antiretroviral therapy), people can live decades with HIV without developing AIDS. Without treatment, AIDS can be fatal. 

TB- pathogen, symptoms and progression of disease, active/laten, prognosis 

Pathogen- Mycobacterium tuberculosis (bacterium). Symptoms: Persistent cough, chest pain, fever, nigh sweats, weight loss. Progression: Latent TB: bacteria present but inactive, no symptoms, not contagious. Active TB: bacteria active, symptoms present, contagious. Prognosis: Treatable with antibiotics, but drug-resistant TB is harder to treat 

Malaria-did you watch the video? Pathogen, what have we just developed

Pathogen: Plasmodium (protozoan parasite). Transmission: Mosquito bite (Anopheles species. Symptoms: Fever, chills, sweat, headache, fatigue. Progression: Cyclic fever patterns; severe malaria can cause organ failure and death. Recent development: New malaria vaccines have been developed and approved (Vaccine) 

Influenza- Pathogen H and N spikes, how they are named, possible merging of viruses for “super-flu of the future,” YAY!

Pathogen: influenza virus (types A,B,C). H and N spikes: Hemagglutinin (H) and Neuraminidase (N) glycoproteins on virus surface-used for naming strains 

Emerging diseases- What’s “up and coming”, factors that are pushing this

Diseases newly appearing or rapidly increasing in incidence. Factors: Global travel, climate change, deforestation, population growth, viral mutation. Ex: Nipah virus, Zika virus, novel coronaviruses. 

Antibiotic Resistance

When bacteria evolve to survive antibiotic treatments. Causes: Overuse/misuse of antibiotics, lack of new antibiotic development. Consequences: Harder to treat infections, longer hospital stays, increased mortality. Prevention: Responsible antibiotic use, hygiene, vaccination, research into new drugs.