Explanations of Attachment

Learning theory

A group of explanations (classical & operant conditioning), which explain behaviour in terms of learning

Who first investigated classical conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov

Classical Conditioning

Learning thru association

• NS consistently paired w. UCS so it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus & is able to produce a conditioned response

Classical Conditioning attachment

1. Food = UCS, Baby’s pleasure = UCR

2. Mother = NS, Baby has no response 

3. UCS & NS are paired (mother reg. & constantly associated w. food) 

4. Mother = CS, Baby’s pleasure = CR (seeing mother gives pleasure) 

Who first investigated Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner

• Dollard & Miller (1950) offered explanation for attachment 

Operant Conditioning 

Learning thru reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Repeating behaviours that alleviate discomfort or unwanted stimuli

• Infant seeking out caregiver leads to a reduction in discomfort as they are fed

  • Food = primary reinforcer

  • Person associated w. food (thru classical c.) = secondary reinforcer 

• Seeking out that caregiver is likely to be repeated & this is what creates an attachment 

Social learning theory

Learning through observing others & imitating behaviours that are rewarded (reinforcement / vicarious reinforcement) 

LT DIS 1: Attachment & Food

P: Main limitation of learning theory as an explanation for attachment is that it suggests food is the key element in the formation of attachment 

Ev: Strong evidence to show that feeding has nothing to do w. attachment. Harlow’s study w. infant monkeys showed the infants were most ‘attached’ to the wire mother that provided contact comfort, not food.

Ex: Although the study is with animals, it is supported by Schaffer & Emerson’s research. 

L: Research studies suggest that the learning explanation is oversimplified & that it ignores other important factors such as contact comfort. 

LT AD1: Some explanatory power

P: A strength is that the learning theory can explain some aspects of attachment

Ev: Infants do learn thru association & reinforcement, but food may not be the main reinforcer.

Ex: It may be that attention & responsiveness from a caregiver are important rewards that assist in the formation of attachment. Such reinforces weren’t part of the learning theory account. It may also be that responsiveness is something that infants imitate & thus learn about how to conduct relationships.

L: This shows that learning theory may not provide a complete explanation of attachment but it still has some value 

LT DIS 2: Learning theory and Animal Studies

P: A criticism of learning theory is that it’s largely based on studies with animals

Ev: Skinner’s research w. pigeons, Pavlov’s w. dogs 

Ex: Behaviourists believe humans and animals aren’t different in terms of how they learn. Our behaviour patterns are constructed from the same basic building blocks of stimulus & response, so they argue it is legitimate to generalise. However a behaviour as complex as attachment, can’t be explained by conditioning. Non-behaviourists argue attachment involves innate predispositions & mental activity.

L: Therefore, behaviourist explanations may lack validity as they present an oversimplified version of human behaviour 

LT DIS 3: Alt. explanation 

P: Learning theory was rejected as an explanation of attachment is because a better theory appeared.

Ev: Bowlby’s theory has many more strengths. It can explain why attachments form, whereas learning can only explain how they might form. 

Ex: It can explain Schaffer & Emerson’s findings that infants aren’t always most strongly attached to the person who feeds them. LT also offers no explanations of the strengths of attachment. According to Bowlby’s theories, the strengths include protection from harm & thus increased chances of survival.

L: In this way, Bowlby’s theory offers a more complete explanation of attachment than LT 

Critical Period

A biologically determined period of time, during which certain characteristics can develop. Outside of this time window such development won’t be possible.

• The period after birth in which babies are best adapted to form attachments

• 3-6 months

Adaptive (BMT)

• B believed attachments give us an ‘adaptive advantage’ making us more likely to survive

• If infant has attachment to caregiver, they’re kept safe, are fed and warm

• Drive for humans to care is innate due to social releasers

Social Releasers (BMT)

• B suggested babies born w. set of innate cute behaviours (physical / behavioural) 

• Encourages attention of adults & have a purpose to activate the adult attachment system

• Causes adult to feel love towards infant & triggers an innate predisposition to become attached

Critical Period (BMT)

• B proposed a timeframe where the infant attachment system is most active & sensitive to attachment formation 

  • From birth to 6 months 

• If attachment not formed during this time, it will be much harder & less likely to form one in later life

• Failure to form this attachment, can lead to irreversible consequences in terms of social, emotional & intellectual development 

Monotropy (BMT) 

• BMT emphasises idea of 1 caregiver who is more important than any other, the more time spent w. this primary caregiver the better

• 2 laws to emphasise these ideas:

  • Law of continuity - the more constant & predictable child’s care, better the quality of attachment

  • Law of accumulated separation - Every bit of time away from mother adds up, safest amount of time is 0  

Internal Working Model (BMT)

• B said kids form a mental representation of their relationship w. their primary caregiver, serves as a schema/model of what all relationships are like (influences kid’s future relationships)

• E.g. loving & reliable caregiver = infant expecting these iin future relationships & will be able to bring these qualities into future relationships

  • Poor attachment = low expectations, poor behaviours & negative future relationships

• IWM affects infant’s ability to be a parent themselves as you tend to replicate your 1st attachment

BMT AD1: Continuity hypothesis

P: According to B’s theory, 1 outcome of attachment is its effect on subsequent relationships

Ev: Tested by Minnesota parent-child study (Sroufe et al, 2005). Followed participants from infancy to late adolescence & found continuity between early attachment & later emotional/social behaviour

Ex: Individuals who were classified as securely attached in infancy were highest rated for social competence later in childhood, were less isolated & more popular, and more empathetic.

L: Supports continuity hypothesis as there is a link between early & later attachments 

BMT DIS1: Critical Period? 

P: Bowlby claimed it shouldn’t be possible to form attachments beyond the critical period, however this has been debunked.

Ev: Psychologists have studied children who fail to form attachments during this period. Evidence from Rutter et al shows Bowlby’s claim is true to an extent. It is less likely that attachments will form after this period, but it isn’t impossible

Ex: The developmental window is 1 where kids are maximally receptive to the formation of certain characteristics or behaviour, but such developments can occur outside this window.

L: For this reason, researchers now prefer to use the term ‘sensitive period’ rather than ‘critical period’

BMT AD2: Attachment being Adaptive

P: B suggested that attachments develop when the infant is older than 3 months. This is v. late as a mechanism to protect infants (questioning its credibility as been critical for survival.

Ev: In our distant ancestors it may have been vital for infants to become attached as soon as they’re born. The age of attachment may be linked to features of a species’ life.

Ex: Human infants don’t need to cling onto their mothers. However, when human infants start crawling (approx. 6 months), attachment is vital & that is when attachment develops in humans.

L: This therefore supports B’s view that attachment is adaptive. 

BMT DIS2: Alt explanation

Temperament hypothesis- an infant’s innate emotional personality may explain attachment behaviour.