BIOLOGY 2053 FINAL EXAM

Define anatomy

Define anatomy

study of body parts and relationship to one another

what is gross anatomy

study of large, visible structures

what is microscopic anatomy

deals with structures too small for the eyes

define physiology

function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities

define negative feedback

response reduces/shuts off original stimulus

define positive feedback

response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus

define anatomical position

standing up, feet apart, palms face forward, thumbs pointing away

define tissue

groups of cells that are similar in structure and perform a common or related function

define histology

study of tissues

define homeostasis

maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite changes in the environment

what are the levels of organization

atoms
molecules
organelles
cells
tissue
organs
organ systems
organism

integumentary system consists of...

hair
skin
nails

integumentary system function

forms external body covering, protects deeper tissue from injury, synthesize vit D, houses cutaneous receptors, sweat/oil glands

skeletal system consists of...

bones
joints

skeletal system function

protects/supports body organs, provides framework muscles use for movement, blood cells formed within bones (store minerals)

muscular system consists of...

skeletal muscles

muscular system function

allow manipulation of environment, locomotion, facial expression, maintain posture, produces heat

nervous system consists of...

brain
spinal cord
nerves

nervous system function

fast-acting control system of body, responds to internal and external changes by activating muscles and glands

endocrine system consists of...

pineal gland
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
thymus
adrenal gland
pancreas
testis
ovary

endocrine system function

glands secrete hormones that regulate processes like growth, reproduction, nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells

cardiovascular system consists of...

heart
blood vessels

cardiovascular system function

blood vessels transport blood which carries O2, CO2, nutrients, waste, etc.
heart pumps blood

lymphatic system consists of...

red bone marrow
thymus
lymphatic vessels
thoracic duct
spleen
lymph nodes

lymphatic system function

picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood, dispose of debris in lymphatic stream, houses WBCs involved in immunity (immune response mounts attack against foreign substances within body.

respiratory system consists of...

nasal cavity
pharynx
larynx
trachea
lung
bronchus

respiratory system function

keeps blood constantly supplied with O2, removes CO2, (gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs of lungs)

urinary system consists of...

kidney
ureter
urinary bladder
urethra

urinary system function

eliminate nitrogenous waste from body, regulates water, electrolyte, acid-base balance of blood

digestive system consists of...

oral cavity
esophagus
liver
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
anus

digestive system function

break down food into absorbable units enter blood stream for distribution to body cells, indigestible food eliminated as feces

male reproductive system consists of...

prostate
penis
testis
scrotum
ductus (vas) deferens

male and female reproductive system function

production of offspring
testes produce sperm, male ducts/glands aid in delivery of sperm, ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones, remaining female structures serve as fertilization site and development of fetus, mammary glands produce nourishing milk.

female reproductive system consists of...

mammary glands
ovary
uterine tube
uterus
vagina

three most common body planes

sagittal
frontal (coronal)
transverse

sagittal plane

top to bottom
divides body into left and right

parasagittal

not in the midline of body

frontal (coronal) plane

divides body into front and back portions

transverse plane

line left to right
divides into superior and caudal

superior

toward head end, upper part of structure or body; above

inferior (caudal)

away from head or toward lower part; below

anterior (ventral)

toward or at front of body; in front of

posterior (dorsal)

toward or at backside of body; behind

medial

toward or at midline of body; on the inner side of

lateral

away from midline of body; on the outer side of

internediate

between more medial and more lateral structure

proximal

close to origin of body part or point of attachment of limb to body trunk

distal

farther from origin of body part or point of attachment of limb to body trunk

superficial

toward or at the body surface

deep

away from body surface; more internal

axial

head
neck
trunk

appendicular

limbs (legs and arms)

dorsal body cavity

1. cranial cavity
2. vertebral cavity

ventral body cavity

1. thoracic cavity
-pleural cavities (pleura)
-pericardial cavity (pericardium)
2. abdominopelvic cavity (peritoneum)
-abdominal cavity
-pelvic cavity

what is serosa

thin, double layered membranes that cover surfaces in ventral body cavity

what is parietal serosa

lines internal body cavity walls

what is visceral serosa

covers internal organs

the double layers of serous membrane separated by what?

slit-like cavity filled with serous fluid

Three basic parts in human cells

1. plasma membrane- flexible outer boundary
2. cytoplasm- intracellular fluid containing organelles
3. DNA containing control center

plasma membrane characteristics

active barrier separating intracellular fluid from extracellular, controls what enters/leaves cell, semi-permeable lipidic bilayer (proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins)

plasma membrane structure

phospholipid bilayer
hydrophilic heads
hydrophobic tails
(hairpins)

what is glycocalyx

sugars on cell surface
gives identity of cell

tight junctions

impermeable (no passing of molecules)

desmosomes

anchoring that prevents cells from being separated

gap junctions

communication between cells

membrane transports

passive- no energy
active- energy

passive transport

-high to low concentration
-particles distribute evenly within solution
-movement affected by size and temp

two types of passive membrane transport

1. diffusion
--simple diffusion
--carrier and channel mediated facilitated diffusion
--osmosis
2. filtration (usually occurs across capillary walls

simple diffusion

-solutes are lipid soluble materials, small enough to pass through membrane pores
- movement down conc. gradient

carrier and channel mediated facilitated diffusion

-substance require protein carrier or channel
-movement down conc. gradient

osmosis

-simple diffusion of water
-follows solute so transport is against conc. gradient

passive transport: filtration

-water and solutes forces through membrane by fluid or hydrostatic pressure
- high to low pressure

isotonic solutions

-cells retain normal size
-same solute/water concentration

hypertonic solutions

-cells lose water and shrink
-higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than are present inside cell

hypotonic solutions

-cells take in water until bloated and burst (lyse)
-lower concentration of nonpenetrating solutes than are present inside cell

active transport

move against conc. gradient (low to high

primary active transport

-energy directly from ATP hydrolysis
-sodium-potassium pump

secondary active transport

-energy indirectly from ionic gradients
-leakage channels result in leaking of Na+ into cell, K+ out of cell

vesicular transport

endocytosis
exocytosis

endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane
(phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated)

exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material
(constitutive and regulated secretion)

membrane potential

-describe difference in voltage
-unequal concentration and permeability of ions across membrane
-elicit action potentials

cytoplasm consists of...

cytosol
inclusions
organelles

what is cytoplasm

all cellular material located between plasma membrane and nucleus

non-membranous organelles

-direct contact with cytosol
-includes cytoskeleton, centrioles, ribosomes, proteasomes

membranous organelles

-covered with plasma membrane
-includes nucleus, ER, golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria

mitochondria

-produces cell's energy molecules ATP, aerobic cell resp.
-double membranes; cristae- folds
-contain own DNA, RNA, and ribosomes

ribosomes

-site of protein synthesis
- made of protein and rRNA

free ribosomes

free floating; synthesis site of soluble proteins function in cytosol or organelles

membrane-bound ribosome

attached to ER membrane; synthesis site of proteins incorporated into membrane or lysosomes; exported from cell

Endoplasmic reticulum

series of parallel, interconnected cisterns

rough ER

-attached ribosomes
-synthesis site of proteins that are secreted from cell, plasma membrane proteins, phospholipids

smooth ER

enzymes in plasma membrane function in:
-lipid metabolism; cholesterol and steroid based hormone synthesis; make lipids for lipoproteins
-absorption, synthesis, transport fats
-detox chemicals
-glycogen-> free glucose
-storage and release of calcium

golgi apparatus

-stacked/flattened membranous cistern sacs
-modifies, concentrates, packages proteins and lipids received from er

golgi vesicle 3 pathways

a. secretory vesicles undergo exocytosis
b. vesicles containing lipids or transmembrane proteins fuse with plasma or organelle membrane
c. lysosomes containing digestive enzymes remain in cell

peroxisomes

membranous sacs containing powerful substances that neutralize toxins (oxidase and catalase)

lysosomes

-spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
-digest ingested bacteria, virus, toxins
-degrade nonfunctional organelles

cytoskeleton

-network of rods that run through cytosol
-act ass cell's "bones, ligaments, and muscle"