Native American History Final Exam Terms

The Oneida Land Claims Case

• 1784 - Treaty of fort stanwix (joseph brant signs off on it) recognized each of the six nations as sovereign nations, and promised to protect the Six Nations and the reserve's land- LOST LAND BC CREATION OF RESERVATIONS

• 1785 - state land purchase violates fort stanwix treaty

• 1790 Indian Intercourse act says only fed govt can make treaties w indians, if state makes one fed govt reps have to be present

• 1793- Indian Intercourse Act part 2- states can negotiate but only with fed govt sign off

• 1795- NY purchases most of Oneida land

• 1946- Indian Claims Commission created to resolve historical grievances and monetary claims by Native American tribes against the federal government for treaty violations, land seizures, and unfair dealings

• 1951- Oneida files land claim

• 1978- Oneida wins claim but declines money because they want their land back instead

• 1982- US Congress tries to deny land possibility

• 1985- supreme court decides its not NY land, but the land isnt the states to return anymore

• 2002-4 - failed settlement, tribes reject offer

• 2013- historic agreement - Oneida are the only people that can have a casino in NY- Oneida agree to give 25% gaming revenue to state and surrounding counties.

The Haudenasaunee Diaspora

the forced dispersal of the people of the Six Nations Confederacy from their ancestral homelands, primarily in present-day New York State, as a direct consequence of European colonization and the aftermath of the American Revolution. 

• New York State, USA: Significant populations of Onondaga, Seneca, Tuscarora, and some Oneida still live on reservations within their ancestral homelands.

• Oklahoma, USA: A portion of the Oneida people relocated to Oklahoma.

• Wisconsin, USA: A large group of Oneida moved to Wisconsin after the Revolution.

• Ontario and Quebec, Canada: Many Mohawk and Cayuga, who were loyal to the British Crown, withdrew to Canada and established communities on lands granted to them in compensation for their losses. 

Lewis and Clark

• 1803 = Louisiana Purchase from French - US doubles in size

• US wants to form good relations with Indians to assert their presence in Louisiana and prevent other Euro forces from taking it

• Thomas Jefferson organizes Lewis and Clark expedition 1804-6- goals: find Northwest passage, assess land and animal life, diplomacy and trade relationship with Natives,

• Overall successful- only fought with blackfoot bc they were trading with their neighbors, blackfoot didn’t want their enemies to have access to trade

Sacagawea

Possibly a shoshone (or hidatsa) woman captured from her community by Hidatsas- married Charboneau french man, Only woman on L&C expedition, newborn son, translator, rescued L&C journals from sinking, negotiated purchase of horses to travel over rockies

• Shoshone: LC journals say she was shoshone, Charboneau said so, journals document reunion with brother, 1812 Clark writes she dies

• Hidatsa: Grandson Bullseye says she died in 1869, Hidatsa oral history, Bullseye DNA linked to Charboneau’s in quebec, Clark was wrong about other deaths, Charboneau = untrustworthy and bad translator, Biddle added details that weren’t in journals based on convos with Clark- including reunion with brother.

The Indian Removal Act

1830, authorize president to negotiate treaties of removal with all tribes living east of mississippi,

Andrew Jackson

• elected in 1828, advocate of removal,

• called creeks and cherokees “wandering hunters”- even though he knew from battle of horse shoe bend that they were settled agricultural communities,

• economic incentive: wanted to clear out native agricultural women in south and replace with slaves on cotton plantations

• pushed 80,000 indians west from 1830s-40s (trail of tears)

• responsible for Indian Removal Act

The Trail of Tears

• Indian removal act of 1830 established advocacy for us to remove eastern tribes and authorizes oresident to grant them lands west of mississippi

• cotton production= econ incentive to remove them

• Tribes moved to Oklahoma, (originally ok, kansas, nebraska but then kansas and nebraska act)

• Cherokee original territory = NC, SC, Georgia, Alabama- they were slave owners, had constitution modeled after us but located on blackbelt where cotton is easily grown so they were removed

• identified cherokees in favor of removal and got them to sign off (not chiefs- no authority)= Treaty of New Echota 1835

• 13k+ forcibly removed to OK, 2-4k died

The Marshall Trilogy

Marshall = chief justice of US supreme court 1801-35, Indian law=marshall trilogy

• Johnson V M’Intosh

• Cherokee Nation V Georgia

• Worcestor V Georgia

Johnson V M’Intosh

1823, Native people can only sell land to the federal govt, Marshall said euros had gotten all land by right of discovery, Indians did not own land, they were tenents, therefore Natives can’t sell land.

Cherokee Nation V Georgia

• 1827 gold discovered in Georgia,

• Georgia starts creating laws aimed at pushing Cherokees out: prohibited tribal council meetings, closed tribal courts, deprives of right to legal protest (basically black codes), illegal to testify against whites,

• 1830- The Georgia Guard created, harassed Cherokees, arrested chief, confiscated printing press

• After Indian removal act georgia steps up campaign of harassment

• 1831 Cherokee Nation V Georgia: TRIBES ARE DOMESTIC DEPENDENT NATIONS, cherokees sue georgia on the basis of being sovereign, georgia legislation doesnt apply to them, Marshall threw the case out because cherokees arent states or a foreign nation, they are a nation within a nation.

Worcestor V Georgia

1832 Samuel Worcestor (Georgia Cherokee) broke law on purpose to bring case to supreme court - Marshall this time said state laws do not apply on reservations, now only federal laws apply to nations.

Sequoyah

Created the Cherokee Syllabary, traditionalist, moved west after 1814 battle of horseshoe bend in alabama and wanted to communicate with his relatives. 1821 completed.

The Second Seminole War

1835-42, Escaped slaves would flee south to florida and join seminoles, seminoles became mixed race, whites wanted to recapture slaves and prevent haven, 7 year war, by 1842 most seminoles just moved west, 1k stayed in florida, vietnam war vibes -pointless-dragged on-criticized, 3k moved to OK,

Manifest Destiny

Rapid US expansion post Louisiana purchase

Treaty of Guadalupe- Hidalgo

1848- formally ended the Mexican-American War, resulting in Mexico ceding vast territories (the Mexican Cession, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming) to the U.S. for $15 million, establishing the Rio Grande as the Texas border, and granting U.S. citizenship to Mexicans in those lands.

Genocide

CA gold rush genocide, 1848, 49ers— miners and settlers killing Indians, so they flee into mountains but they would come back down for food and conflict would arise,

• war of extermination

• “protecting the settlers” random men going up into the mountains to massacre Indians

• legalized slavery - could be arrested for loitering and then made slaves for years

• calculated genocide

The Dakota War

1862, after reservation established they had been promised food, water, resources, but their agent was corrupt and illegally taking it), dakota sioux rise up and wage war on settlers in Minnesota tons of sioux die in revolt, 38 dakota men convicted of rape and murder and publicly executed, lincoln signed off on it, lots of dakota imprisoned, others went west and joined lakota sioux

Sand Creek Massacre

The Sand Creek Massacre was an attack by the U.S. Army in 1864, where Colonel John Chivington's militia slaughtered hundreds of mostly unarmed Cheyenne and Arapaho people (primarily women, children, and elders) camped peacefully in southeastern Colorado.

The Long Walk

1864-1866, Navajos were constantly attacking nearby hispanics and white settlers, James Carleton commissioned Kit Carson to lead campaign against Navajos, - removed apache to bosque redondo in spring and then navajo, their crops and livestock were killed=stravation=forced to leave and walk to bosque redondo across a desert, (bosque redondo was flat and barren- navajo world view revolved around mountains but there were none), whites put them there as a buffer between comanches and white settlers, they were starving getting grasshopper plagues, and attacked by comanches, 2k out of 10k survived, they pleaded to go back - no more raids, went back home.

Bosque Redondo

The barren flat land Navajos were sent to, destination of the long walk of 1864-1866, buffer zone between white settlers and comanches.

The Battle of Little Big Horn

• 1868= great sioux reservation

• rumors that gold exists in blackhills

• 1874 -custer led expedition into blackhill, announced there was gold and wanted to kick lakota sioux out even though they gave them this land

• Custer led 7th cavalry at battle of little big horn, overconfident, surrounded by indians and killed, lakota knew backlash would be extraordinary- sitting bull and ppl fled to canada, rest agreed to reservations

• Custer’s last fight commemorated and glorified, indians villainized

Reservations

Cant push Indians west anymore- no more west, so reservations: confine, control, change

• confine: so that settlers have more land

The Dawes Allotment Act

• 1887- Divided communal reservation lands into individual allotments,

• remainder of allotments sold off, every native fam gets 160 acres, the rest is sold- this land is still under tribal jurisdiction,

• people get to pick their land but corrupt ways of giving them worst land,

• priv property=assimilation, after 25 years of alottment land stops being indian land and you can sell it!

• Lots of indians sold thier land bc they needed money= 2/3 land lost from allotment,

• no more pooling of resources/collective fields= more poverty,

• OK land runs???!!!

Boarding schools

Boarding schools in Native American history were a system of institutions established and funded by the U.S. government and various Christian churches from the early 19th century through the mid-20th century to forcibly assimilate Indigenous children into white American culture. The explicit goal, as stated by Carlisle Indian Industrial School founder Richard Henry Pratt, was to "Kill the Indian...and save the man". 

Assimilation

Assimilation in Native American history refers to the U.S. government's long-term, often forced, policies from the late 18th to mid-20th centuries aimed at erasing Native cultures and integrating Indigenous peoples into mainstream American society through methods like boarding schools, land allotment (Dawes Act), and termination policies, fundamentally disrupting tribal sovereignty and cultural identity.

Ghost Dance

• 1880s-90s, Founded by Wovoka (paiute holy man)

• pop hits lowest point=despair

• Religious revival, 5 day ritual dance, community and healing

• dance symbolizes- white man going away, bison will return, if they gave up alc great spirit would return their lands, dead will return and disease will go away

• federal officials see it as an attack on their authority and kill sitting bull and son in attempt to arrest them?

• lead to wounded knee massacre

The wounded knee massacre

1890- Custers 7th cavalry (after his death) surround ghost dancers, gun went off and then troop opened fire on lakota, 144 natives killed (half women and children), 19 congressional medals of honor given to soldiers at this battle.

Sarah Winnemucca

• 1883- Paiute author and activist, wrote life among the Paiutes exposing corruption in reservations,

• reforming indian affairs,

• first native woman to publish a book

Charles Eastman

• 1858-1939- Dakota Sioux physician and reformer,

• 1911- founding member of society of American Indians

• 1st Indian to get a medical degree

• supporter of allotment and assimilation (only way forward)

Henry Roe Cloud

• 1928 merriam report
  First native yale graduate

• minister and reformer

• argument that Native Americans should attend college

The Red Progressives

The Red Progressives in Native American history were a group of educated, professional Native leaders in the early 20th century, prominent within the Society of American Indians (SAI) (1911–1923), who sought to blend Native traditions with modern American life, advocating for civil rights, better healthcare, and education while pushing for cultural pride and challenging stereotypes through mainstream engagement

Jim Thorpe

1887-1953- Sac and Fox Olympian & key figure in founding of professional sports in America,

The Indian Citizenship Act

• After WW1, 12000 served,

• Navajo code talkers,

• Indians gain right to citizenship in 1924,

• natives can vote but poll taxes and literacy tests in jim crow era prevent them

The Merriam Report

• 1928- The problem of the Indian Admin, Henry Roe Cloud researches

• Physical health= poor, economically lagging, bad conditions in boarding schools

• called for end to boarding schools and allotment system

• Natives can’t be separated from society, BIA must improve

• Has to be a min standard of health and decency

John Collier

• Indian commissioner under FDR

• Indian New Deal- revitalize native nations

• Drafts1934 Indian Reorganization Act, tribes could accept or reject IRA through vote

• Collier travels around to spread message

The Indian Reorganization Act

• 1934 Indian Reorganization Act is signed,

• Indians on reservations gain self governance,

• Fed govt provides training in land management, legislation, provide scholarship $,

• BIA staffed by native people,

• Dawes allotment act terminated,

• non allotted res land would revert back to tribes,

• tribes could accept or reject IRA through vote, if accepted tribe drafts constitution and it has to be approved by fed govt

• Anti IRA= segregation?? reverse assimilation?? imposed western style governance??

• Anyone who doesnt vote counted yes, so 174 tribes accepted and 78 tribes rejected- including navajo

• Navajo were resentful of fed govt bc of Livestock reduction of 1930s

Navajo Livestock Reduction

• 1933- collier

• When Navajo came back from Bosque Redondo they were given by fed govt 14k sheep to become farmers (stop raiding),

• sheep # skyrocket, prosperous

• Govt scared of overgrazing and drought, erosion of new hoover dam in Colorado river

• Govt starts livestock reduction program= economically devastating, felt betrayed by fed govt= rejection of Indian Reorg Act

Code Talkers

Navajo Code talkers during WW1 and WW2, helped communicate classified info in their language.

Indian Claims Commission

The Indian Claims Commission (ICC), established in 1946, was a U.S. government body created to resolve historical grievances and land claims by Native American tribes against the United States, offering monetary compensation for stolen or undervalued lands, though it often failed to provide true justice, instead settling claims for much less than land value, requiring tribes to give up future claims, and becoming a controversial chapter in federal-tribal relations. 

Arthur Watkins

Arthur V. Watkins was a U.S. Senator from Utah (1947-1959) known primarily for championing the controversial "Termination Era" Indian policy in the 1950s, aiming to end federal recognition of tribes and assimilate Native Americans, a policy that dismantled tribal governments and had devastating effects, As chair of the Senate Subcommittee on Indian Affairs, he pushed House Concurrent Resolution 108, making termination federal policy.

Termination

Native American termination was a mid-20th-century U.S. policy (c. 1940s-1960s) aiming to assimilate Indigenous peoples by ending federal recognition of tribes, dissolving their sovereignty, and terminating government support, treating them as individuals, not distinct nations, leading to land loss and cultural disruption.

Ada Deer

1973 Menominee activist, scholar, and government official who fought for Native American rights, leading the successful effort to restore federal recognition to the Menominee tribe and becoming the first woman to head the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) under President Clinton.

Alcatraz

• 1969

• Bay Area Natives, “Indians of All Tribes” go to Alcatraz (lowk hippies-0 counter culture movement)

• led by mohawk activist richard oakes

• treaty said indians could legally occupy federal buildings out of use - go to alcatraz (but mostly to gain publicity- attention to the cause)

• they stayed for 2ish years- not sustainable and Oakes left because his daughter died

• International attention

The American Indian Movement (AIM)

• Minneapolis becomes an Indian ghetto

• Police brutality - bar raids

• 1968- founded in Minneapolis, establish police patrol, establish police patrol- ppl with red jackets- would help drunk ppl get home safe and warn ppl of police raids before they happened

• native police arrests go down

• becomes national org and stages protests, painted plymouth rock red on thanksgiving day

• 1972 trail of broken treaties- march -wanted 180 0acres restored and return to bilateral treaties, gathered in BIA building and were refused food and lodge, they took control of building for 6 days and destroyed important allotment paperwork

• other similar protests and marches

• took over pine ridge res- where wounded knee happened and went bc dick wilson was the corrupt tribal leader stealing tribal funds, gained media attention

VAWA Reauthorization Act

2013- Violence against women reauthorization act- expands tribal authority to prosecute non-native sex offenders.

Oliphant V Suquamish Indian Tribe

• 1973 Seattle Suquamish festival, only tribal police present

• Oliphant (non-native) assaults officer and another man (native)

• 1978- Rule tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over non- native people

• Causes white people to come into reservations to commit crimes- sexual assault spikes

• If perpetrator is white state cannot act, only fed govt (FBI) = takes a long time for them to get there

McGirt V Oklahoma

• 5 tribes originally exempted from dawes allotment act until curtis act 1906

• Oklahoma enabling act 1907- establishes state of oklahoma

• OK starts acting like only allotted land =tribal land

• indian reservations deestablished for a century

• 1999 muscogee creek kills another creek man on res land but not allotted, tried in state and sentenced to death, but if he had been tried by fed gov- no death,

• prior acts never disestablished res

• 5-4 in favor of tribes- all res land is indian land

• OK tries to revert decision after Ruth Vader Ginsburg died, and won- lots of lies.

Elouise Cobell

• born in Blackfeet res, yellow bird woman

• Internship at BIA office, saw the corruption

• people not getting their allotment payments

• 1986- becomes treasurer of tribe,

• tribes rely on BIA to get farm finances- farms need access to loans- but hard to get bc they cant put their farms up as collateral bc of Johnson V Mcintosh- natives can only sell land to fed govt

• 1987- opens blackfeet national bank - in 2001 renamed native american bank

The Native American Bank

2001 Created by Elouise Cobell so native americans (esp farmers) can get loans

Cobell V Salazar

After she won genius award she used money for 1996 class-action lawsuit led by Elouise Cobell against the U.S. government for decades of mismanagement, theft, and failure to account for billions of dollars in Individual Indian Money (IIM) trust funds held by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), exposing systemic breaches of fiduciary duty and leading to a historic $4 billion settlement for land consolidation and payments, plus education funds

relocation

relocation 1950s&60s to cities post termination, end federal support for tribes, abolish their special legal status (termination), and simultaneously move Native Americans from reservations to urban centers like Chicago, Denver, and LA (relocation) for assimilation and employment, promising jobs and housing but often resulting in economic hardship, cultural dislocation, discrimination